PIE Lexicon Project
System PIE (Pyysalo 2013)
Foma (Hulden 2009)
FIN-CLARIN

Proto-Indo-European Lexicon

The generative etymological dictionary of Indo-European languages

The Proto-Indo-European Phoneme Inventory

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(PRINCIPLE of POSTULATION)



Department of Modern Languages
Department of World Cultures
Indo-European Studies
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PIE



PIE √n- (vb.) ‘biegen’
(IEW: in extensions)
(Pedersen HiuA 187; Pyysalo; for the semantics, cf. RV. tyaj- : Gr. σεβ-)
√nɑh- ‘biegen’
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. naḫ-
(vb.1.) ‘(sich) fürchten, vorsichtig sein’
(CHD N:338ff.)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-mi, na-aḫ-ti [3sg])
1. PIE *neɑh-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nah-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nah-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫ-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫ-
(vb.2.) ‘(sich) fürchten, vorsichtig sein’
(HIL. 683)
(Hitt. na-a-ḫi [3sg], ḪUŠ-ḫi [3sg])
1. PIE *neɑh-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nah-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nah-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫ-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Kpd. naḫ·pašu̯a-
(fc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 845)
(Kpd. na-aḫ-pá-áš-ua)
1. PIE *neɑh·Σ
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑh·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑh·Σ
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nah·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nah·Σ
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Kpd. naḫ·Σ
(SPIE §4.6.3)
OGaul. nem·na·liu-
(vb.) ‘célèbrer’
(DLG. 234)
1. PIE *nem·neɑh·liu-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *nem·naɑh·liu-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. nem·naɑh·liu-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nem·nah·liu-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nem·nah·liu-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → OGaul. nem·na·liu-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
OIr. nem·na·ll-
(sb.) ‘célébration (de la messe)’
(DIL. 477)
1. PIE *nem·neɑh·lno
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *nem·naɑh·lno
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. nem·naɑh·lno
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nem·nah·lno
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nem·nah·lno
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nem·na·lno
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nem·na·lno
PIE *ln → ll
Assimilation of PIE *ln into ll
Rln›ll → *nem·na·llo
5. nem·na·llo
-o → Ø
Loss of root-final -o
R=o›=0Restr → OIr. nem·na·ll
√nɑho-
Hitt. naḫa-
(LÚc.) ‘(égyptien) ‹here if *σεβαστός vel sim.›’
(NOMS. 842)
1. PIE *noɑho-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *noho-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. noho-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naha-
3. naha-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫa-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhi-
Hitt. naḫi-
(pr.A.) ‘fürchten’
(HIL. 683)
(Hitt. na-a-ḫi, na-ḫi [ipv2sg])
1. PIE *neɑhi-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhi-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahi-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫi-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Pal. naḫi-
(vb.?) ‘-(?)-’ (HHand. 109)
(DPal. 64)
(Pal. na-aḫ-ḫi-ir ‹here if [3pl]›)
1. PIE *neɑhi-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhi-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahi-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Pal. naḫi-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫi·ru̯a-
(LÚc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 843)
1. PIE *neɑhi·ru̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhi·ru̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhi·ru̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahi·ru̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahi·ru̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahi·ru̯a-
4. nahi·ru̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫi·ru̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫiške/a-
(vb.iter.) ‘sich fürchten’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. [n]a-aḫ-ḫe-eš-ki-mi-ua, na-a-ḫi-eš-ke/a-)
1. PIE *neɑhi·ski̯e/o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhi·ski̯e/o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhi·ski̯e/o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahi·ski̯e/o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahi·ski̯e/o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *nahi·sḱe/o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. nahi·sḱe/o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahi·sḱe/a-
5. nahi·sḱe/a-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nahi·ske/a-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. nahi·ske/a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nahi·ške/a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
7. nahi·ške/a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫi·ške/a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhim-
(Pyysalo)
RV. nem-
(pf.) ‘sich beugen, sein Macht weichen’
(WbRV. 710)
1. PIE *noɑhim-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nohim-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nohim-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahim-
3. nahim-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *naim-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. naim-
ai → ē
Monophthongization of *ai
Rai›ē → *nēm-
5. nēm-
*ē → e
Change of *ē into e
Rē›e → RV. nem-
RV. nemí-
(f.) ‘Radkranz, Radfelge’ (WbRV. 755)
(EWA 2:56)
1. PIE *noɑhimí-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nohimí-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nohimí-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahimí-
3. nahimí-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *naimí-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. naimí-
ai → ē
Monophthongization of *ai
Rai›ē → *nēmí-
5. nēmí-
*ē → e
Change of *ē into e
Rē›e → RV. nemí-
Galat. δρυ·ναίμετο-
(n.) ‘heiliger Eichenhain’
(IEW 215)
1. PIE *drɑɦu·neɑhímeto-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *drɑɦu·naɑhímeto-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. drɑɦu·naɑhímeto-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *drɦu·nahímeto-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. drɦu·nahímeto-
PIE *ɦ → Ø
Loss of segmental *ɦ
Rɦ›0 → *dru·nahímeto-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. dru·nahímeto-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *dru·naímeto-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. dru·naímeto-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Galat. δρυ·ναίμετο-
√nɑhon-
Hitt. naḫant-
(pt.) ‘ehrfürchtig’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ḫa-an-te-eš [plN])
1. PIE *neɑhont-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhont-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhont-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahont-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahant-
4. nahant-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫant-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫanta-
(URU.) ‘(zwischen ›Pitaša und dem Hulaja)’
(OGHErg. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ḫa-an-ta-aš [N])
1. PIE *neɑhonto-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhonto-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhonto-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahonto-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahonto-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahanta-
4. nahanta-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫanta-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhor-
(uncertain)
HLu. naḫarša-
(MONSa.gen.) ‘of NAḪAR?’
(CHLu. 5.2.2)
(HLu. MONS(-)na-ha+ra/i-sà-na(?))
1. PIE *neɑhorso-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhorso-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhorso-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahorso-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahorso-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naharsa-
4. naharsa-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *naharša-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. naharša-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → HLu. naḫarša-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhso-
HLu. naḫša-
(ANNUSvb.iter.) ‘≈ bow, fear, expect?’
(CHLu. 10.12.10)
(HLu. ANNUS(-)na-ha-sax-hax [1sg])
1. PIE *neɑhso-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhso-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhso-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahso-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahso-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahsa-
4. nahsa-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nahša-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nahša-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → HLu. naḫša-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhsr-
(Pedersen 1938:187)
OIr. nār-
(a.) ‘schamhaft: noble, modest’
(LEIA N-3)
(OIr. nār [sgN])
1. PIE *nḗɑhsro-
PIE *ḗɑ → ā́ɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ḗɑ
Rḗɑ›ā́ɑ → *nā́ɑhsro-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nā́ɑhsro-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nā́hsro-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nā́hsro-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nā́sro-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nā́sro-
*sr → r
Loss of *s before r
Rsr›r → *nā́ro-
5. nā́ro-
Rā́›ā → OIr. nāro-
Hitt. nāḫšrat-
(c.) ‘Furcht, Angst, Ehrfurcht, Furchtsamkeit’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ša-ra-az, na-aḫ-ša-ra-at-ta-an)
1. PIE *nēɑhsrot-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑhsrot-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑhsrot-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāhsrot-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāhsrot-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nāhsrat-
4. nāhsrat-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nāhšrat-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nāhšrat-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nāḫšrat-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
OIr. nāire-
(f.) ‘shame, nobility, modesty’
(DIL. 474)
1. PIE *nḗɑhsri̯ēɑh
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nḗɑhsri̯āɑh
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nḗɑhsri̯āɑh
PIE *ḗɑ → ā́ɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ḗɑ
Rḗɑ›ā́ɑ → *nā́ɑhsri̯āɑh
(SPIE §2.2.10)
3. nā́ɑhsri̯āɑh
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nā́hsri̯āh
(SPIE §2.2.4)
4. nā́hsri̯āh
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nā́sri̯ā
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. nā́sri̯ā
*sr → r
Loss of *s before r
Rsr›r → *nā́ri̯ā
6. nā́ri̯ā
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *nā́ri̯a
7. nā́ri̯a
*i̯o/i̯a -›ē
Monophthongization of final -i̯o/i̯a into -ē
R=i̯V›=ē → *nā́rē
8. nā́rē
*-ē → -e
Shortening of ē in root-final position
R=ē›=e → *nā́re
9. nā́re
Rā́›ā → OIr. nāre
Hitt. nāḫšrei̯a-
(vb.1.A.dn.) ‘sich fürchten, Ehrfurcht erweisen’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ša-ri-ia-az-zi [3pl])
1. PIE *nēɑhsrei̯o-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑhsrei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑhsrei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāhsrei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāhsrei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nāhsrei̯a-
4. nāhsrei̯a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nāhšrei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nāhšrei̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nāḫšrei̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. nāḫšrei̯a-
(vb.M.dn.) ‘sich fürchten, Ehrfurcht erweisen’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-šar-ri-ia-an-da-ri [3pl])
1. PIE *nēɑhsrei̯o-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑhsrei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑhsrei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāhsrei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāhsrei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nāhsrei̯a-
4. nāhsrei̯a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nāhšrei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nāhšrei̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nāḫšrei̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. nāḫšriške/a-
(vb.iter.) ‘sich fürchten, Ehrfurcht erweisen’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ša-ri-iš-ke/a-)
1. PIE *nēɑhsriski̯e/o-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑhsriski̯e/o-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑhsriski̯e/o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāhsriski̯e/o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāhsriski̯e/o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *nāhsrisḱe/o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. nāhsrisḱe/o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nāhsrisḱe/a-
5. nāhsrisḱe/a-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nāhsriske/a-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. nāhsriske/a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nāhšriške/a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
7. nāhšriške/a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nāḫšriške/a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. nāḫšrei̯au̯ant-
(a.) ‘furchtsam’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ša-ri-ia-ua-an-za)
1. PIE *nēɑhsrei̯ou̯ont-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑhsrei̯ou̯ont-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑhsrei̯ou̯ont-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāhsrei̯ou̯ont-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāhsrei̯ou̯ont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nāhsrei̯au̯ant-
4. nāhsrei̯au̯ant-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nāhšrei̯au̯ant-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nāhšrei̯au̯ant-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nāḫšrei̯au̯ant-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. nāḫšrnu-
(cs.) ‘in Furcht versetzen’
(HHand. 109)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-šar-nu-ši [2sg], na-aḫ-šar-nu-ut)
1. PIE *nēɑhsrnu-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑhsrnu-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑhsrnu-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāhsrnu-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāhsrnu-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nāhšrnu-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nāhšrnu-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nāḫšrnu-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhsu-
(Pyysalo)
(uncertain)
Gr. ναύο-
(vb.) ‘ἱκετεύω’
(Hes. ναύω [1sg])
1. PIE *neɑhsúi̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhsúi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhsúi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahsúi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahsúi̯o-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nasúi̯o-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nasúi̯o-
*s → h
Change *s into h
Rs›hRestr2 → *nahúi̯o-
5. nahúi̯o-
*Vi̯V → VhV
Change of *i̯ into h between vowels
RVi̯V›VV → *nahúo-
6. nahúo-
*h → Ø
Loss of segmental h
R-Th›0 → *naúo-
7. naúo-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ναύο-
Kpd. naḫšu·šara-
(PNc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 846)
1. PIE *neɑhsu·soro-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhsu·soro-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhsu·soro-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahsu·soro-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahsu·soro-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahsu·sara-
4. nahsu·sara-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nahšu·šara-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nahšu·šara-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Kpd. naḫšu·šara-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Kpd. kuni·naḫšušar-
(fc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 632)
(Kpd. ku-ni-na-aḫ-šu-šar)
1. PIE *kuni·neɑhsusor-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *kuni·naɑhsusor-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. kuni·naɑhsusor-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *kuni·nahsusor-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. kuni·nahsusor-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *kuni·nahsusar-
4. kuni·nahsusar-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *kuni·nahšušar-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. kuni·nahšušar-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Kpd. kuni·naḫšušar-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhuo-
CLu. naḫu̯a-
(vb.) ‘am Herzen liegen, Gegenst. der Sorge sein’
(DLL. 73)
(CLu. na-aḫ-ḫu-u-ua-i, na-aḫ-ḫu-ua-ad-du)
1. PIE *neɑhu̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯a-
4. nahu̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. naḫu̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
CLu. naḫu̯a-
(n.) ‘Ehrfurcht, Verehrung’
(HHand. 109)
1. PIE *neɑhu̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯a-
4. nahu̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. naḫu̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫu̯a-
(LÚc.) ‘‹cf. above›’
(NOMS. 847)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ḫu-ua)
1. PIE *neɑhu̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯a-
4. nahu̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫu̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫu̯a-
(vb.sb.bs.) ‘fear, respect, care: Sum. ḪUŠ’
(HIL. 683)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ḫu-ua-aš [G], na-a-ḫu-u-ua-aš [G])
1. PIE *neɑhu̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯a-
4. nahu̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫu̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
CLu. naḫu̯ai̯a-
(vb.) ‘am Herzen liegen, Gegenst. der Sorge sein’
(DLL. 73)
(CLu. na-aḫ-ḫu-ua-ia-(ad)-du [3sg])
1. PIE *neɑhu̯oii̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯oii̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯oii̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯oii̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯oii̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯aii̯a-
4. nahu̯aii̯a-
*aii̯a → aia
Loss of *i̯ between *ai and *a
Raii̯a›aia → *nahu̯aia-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
5. nahu̯aia-
* a i a → a i̯ a
Desyllabification of *i between *a and *a
Raia›ai̯a → *nahu̯ai̯a-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
6. nahu̯ai̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. naḫu̯ai̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫuma-
(PNpt.) ‘-(?)-’
(HEG N:252)
1. PIE *neɑhumo-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhumo-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhumo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahumo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahumo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahuma-
4. nahuma-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫuma-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫu̯ar-
(n.) ‘Ehrfürcht, Verehrung’
(HHand. 109)
1. PIE *neɑhu̯or-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯or-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯or-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯or-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯or-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯ar-
4. nahu̯ar-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫu̯ar-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
CLu. naḫu̯aši-
(a.gen.) ‘furchtbar’ oder ‘furchtsam’
(HHand. 109)
(CLu. na-aḫ-ḫu-ua-aš-ši-en‹-zi›)
1. PIE *neɑhu̯osi-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯osi-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯osi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯osi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯osi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯asi-
4. nahu̯asi-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nahu̯aši-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nahu̯aši-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. naḫu̯aši-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫu̯aški-
(LÚc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 848)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ḫu-ua-aš-ki)
1. PIE *neɑhu̯oski̯i-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhu̯oski̯i-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhu̯oski̯i-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahu̯oski̯i-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahu̯oski̯i-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *nahu̯osḱi-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. nahu̯osḱi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahu̯asḱi-
5. nahu̯asḱi-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nahu̯aski-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. nahu̯aski-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nahu̯aški-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
7. nahu̯aški-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫu̯aški-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√neɑhur-
(Pyysalo)
Gr. ναυρό-
(n.) ‘Masse, Last, Gewicht usw.’
(LSJ. 1162)
(Hes. ναυρόν · ὄγκος)
1. PIE *neɑhuró-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhuró-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhuró-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahuró-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahuró-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nauró-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nauró-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ναυρό-
Hitt. naḫurei̯a-
(URU.) ‘(in der Umgebung von Tuwanuwa ›Šaparanta)’
(OGH. 279)
(Hitt. na-aḫ-ḫu-ri-ia)
1. PIE *neɑhurei̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑhurei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑhurei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nahurei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nahurei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nahurei̯a-
4. nahurei̯a-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫurei̯a-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nem-
OGaul. nem·na·liu-
(vb.) ‘célèbrer’
(DLG. 234)
(OGaul. nemnaliIumi [1sg])
1. PIE *nem·neɑh·liu-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *nem·naɑh·liu-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. nem·naɑh·liu-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nem·nah·liu-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nem·nah·liu-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → OGaul. nem·na·liu-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
OIr. nem·na·ll-
(sb.) ‘célébration (de la messe)’
(DIL. 477)
1. PIE *nem·neɑh·lno
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *nem·naɑh·lno
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. nem·naɑh·lno
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nem·nah·lno
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nem·nah·lno
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nem·na·lno
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nem·na·lno
PIE *ln → ll
Assimilation of PIE *ln into ll
Rln›ll → *nem·na·llo
5. nem·na·llo
-o → Ø
Loss of root-final -o
R=o›=0Restr → OIr. nem·na·ll


PIE √n- (vb.) ‘sapere, schmecken, wissend sein, sehen’
(IEW –)
(Pyysalo)
√nɑh-
(Pyysalo)
OEng. ana-
(vb.) ‘sehen’
(AeEtWb. 4)
(OEng. ana [ipv2sg] ‘siehe!’)
1. PIE *o·nēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *o·nāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. o·nāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *o·nāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. o·nāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *o·nā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. o·nā-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *a·nā-
5. a·nā-
PIE *ā → ō
Change of *ā into ō
Rā›ō → *a·nō-
(XX:XX)
6. a·nō-
*a → ea
Change of *a into ea
Ra=›ea= → *ea·nō-
7. ea·nō-
-ō → -a
Change of stem-final -ō into -a
R=ō›=a= → OEng. ea·na-
Bulg. na-
(vb.) ‘siehe da’
(WH. 2:150)
(REW 2:1919)
1. PIE *nēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nā-
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → Bulg. na-
OInd. nā-
(f.) ‘knowledge’
(MonWil. 523)
1. PIE *nēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → OInd. nā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
Dor. ἐν·κατά·νᾱ
(adv.) ‘κατὰ γνώμην, κατὰ νοῦν’
(LSJ. 470)
(Hes. ἐγκατανα · κατὰ γνώμην, κατὰ νοῦν)
1. PIE *Π·Π·nēɑh
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *Π·Π·nāɑh
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. Π·Π·nāɑh
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·Π·nāh
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. Π·Π·nāh
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·Π·nā
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. Π·Π·nā
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Dor. Π·Π·νᾱ
gAv. vy·ā·nā-
(f.) ‘Gescheitheit, Weisheit’
(AIWb. 1478)
(gAv. vyānā-)
1. PIE *Π·Π·nēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *Π·Π·nāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. Π·Π·nāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·Π·nāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. Π·Π·nāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → gAv. Π·Π·nā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
√nɑhi-
(Pyysalo)
(HEG A:25)
Hitt. anāḫi-
(n.sg) ‘Kostprobe (einer Opfergabe)’
(HHand. 15)
(Hitt. anaḫi [sgNA], anaḫita [pl])
1. PIE *onēɑhi-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *onāɑhi-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. onāɑhi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onāhi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. onāhi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anāhi-
4. anāhi-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. anāḫi-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Arm. nayi-
(vb.) ‘look at, apprehend, take care’
(EtDiArm. 499)
(Arm. nayil [inf.])
1. PIE *nēɑhi̯i-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nāɑhi̯i-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nāɑhi̯i-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nāhi̯i-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nāhi̯i-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nāi̯i-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nāi̯i-
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *nai̯i-
5. nai̯i-
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → Arm. nayi-
CLu. anāḫid-
(n.) ‘Kostprobe (einer Opfergabe)’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *onēɑhidɑɦ-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *onāɑhidɑɦ-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. onāɑhidɑɦ-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onāhidɦ-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. onāhidɦ-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anāhidɦ-
4. anāhidɦ-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *anāhid-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. anāhid-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. anāḫid-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. anāḫidai-
(vb.) ‘eine Kostprobe nehmen?’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *onēɑhidɑɦoi-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *onāɑhidɑɦoi-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. onāɑhidɑɦoi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onāhidɦoi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. onāhidɦoi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anāhidɦai-
4. anāhidɦai-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *anāhidai-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. anāhidai-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. anāḫidai-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. anāḫida·ḫid-
(n.) ‘(eine Art Brotopfer)’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *onēɑhidɑɦo·ɦɑid-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *onāɑhidɑɦo·ɦɑid-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. onāɑhidɑɦo·ɦɑid-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onāhidɦo·ɦid-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. onāhidɦo·ɦid-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anāhidɦa·ɦid-
4. anāhidɦa·ɦid-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *anāhida·ɦid-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. anāhida·ɦid-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. anāḫida·ḫid-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√noio-
(Pyysalo)
CLu. ā·naa-
(n.) ‘Erfahrung, Klugheit’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *ō·noi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ō·nai̯a-
2. ō·nai̯a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ā·nai̯a-
3. ā·nai̯a-
* ai̯a → aa
Loss of *i̯ between *a and *a
Rai̯a›aa → CLu. ā·naa-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
Hitt. ā·naa-
(LÚc.) ‘(devin)’
(NOMS. 57.2)
(Hitt. an-na-a [Abs])
1. PIE *ō·noi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ō·nai̯a-
2. ō·nai̯a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ā·nai̯a-
3. ā·nai̯a-
* ai̯a → aa
Loss of *i̯ between *a and *a
Rai̯a›aa → Hitt. ā·naa-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
CLu. ā·naa-
(LÚc.) ‘(arzavien)’
(NOMS. 57.3)
(CLu. an-n[a-aš] [sgN])
1. PIE *ō·noi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ō·nai̯a-
2. ō·nai̯a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ā·nai̯a-
3. ā·nai̯a-
* ai̯a → aa
Loss of *i̯ between *a and *a
Rai̯a›aa → CLu. ā·naa-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
Hitt. ā·naa-
(fc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 58.4)
(Hitt. an-na-a-aš [sgN])
1. PIE *ō·noi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ō·nai̯a-
2. ō·nai̯a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ā·nai̯a-
3. ā·nai̯a-
* ai̯a → aa
Loss of *i̯ between *a and *a
Rai̯a›aa → Hitt. ā·naa-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
√ni-
HLu. ani·tiu̯ara-
(LITUUS.) ‘-(?)-’
(CHLu. 13.15.1)
(HLu. (LITUUS)á-(ni?)-ti-wa/i+ra/i)
1. PIE *oni·tiu̯oro-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. ani·tiu̯ara-
OIr. ā·ine
(f.) ‘wit’
(DIL. 18, 141-2)
1. PIE *ō·ni̯ēɑh
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *ō·ni̯āɑh
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. ō·ni̯āɑh
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ō·ni̯āh
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. ō·ni̯āh
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *ō·ni̯ā
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. ō·ni̯ā
*ōRC → oRC
Osthoff’s Law for *ōRC
RōRC›oRC → *o·ni̯ā
(SPIE §2.5.8)
5. o·ni̯ā
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *o·ni̯a
6. o·ni̯a
*i̯o/i̯a -›ē
Monophthongization of final -i̯o/i̯a into -ē
R=i̯V›=ē → *o·nē
7. o·nē
*-ē → -e
Shortening of ē in root-final position
R=ē›=e → OIr. o·ne
√nu-
OEng. eonu-
(vb.) ‘sehen’
(AeEtWb. 92)
(OEng. eonu, eno [ipv2sg] siehe!)
1. PIE *enu-
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → *inu-
2. inu-
inu -› eonu
Umlaut of *inu to eonu
Rinu›eonu → OEng. eonu-
OEng. anna-
(vb.) ‘sehen’
(AeEtWb. 4)
(OEng. anna [ipv2sg] siehe!)
1. PIE *onu̯ēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *onu̯āɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. onu̯āɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onu̯āh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. onu̯āh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *onu̯ā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. onu̯ā-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anu̯ā-
5. anu̯ā-
PIE *ā → ō
Change of *ā into ō
Rā›ō → *anu̯ō-
(XX:XX)
6. anu̯ō-
*nu̯ -› nn
Change of *nu̯ into nn
Rnu̯›nn → *annō-
7. annō-
*a → ea
Change of *a into ea
Ra=›ea= → *eannō-
8. eannō-
-ō → -a
Change of stem-final -ō into -a
R=ō›=a= → OEng. eanna-


PIE √n- (sb.) ‘Zeit, Jahr’ (a.) ‘alt, vormalig’
(sub IEW 810 *per- 2A)
(Pyysalo: Hitt.)
√n-
Gr. πρητ·ήν-
(m.) ‘einjähriges Lamm’
(LSJ. 1463)
1. PIE *Π·ḗn
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. Π·ήν
√no-
RV. pur·āṇá-
(a.) ‘vormalig, uralt, seit lange bestehend’
(WbRV. 827)
1. PIE *pur·ēnó
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *pur·ēná
2. pur·ēná
*ē → ā
Change of *ē into ā
Rē›ā → *pur·āná
3. pur·āná
*n → ṇ
Assimilation of retroflex
Rn›ṇ → RV. pur·āṇá
Gr. ἔνο-
(m.) ‘Jahr’
(GEW 1:518)
(Hes. ἔνος; or ἔνοσ- (n.)?)
1. PIE *éno-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ἔνο-
Gr. δί·ενο-
(a.) ‘zweijährig’
(GEW 1:518)
(Gr. δίενος)
1. PIE *Π·eno-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. Π·ενο-
Lith. pér·na-
(a.) ‘vorjährig’
(LiEtWb. 576)
1. PIE *Π·no
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Lith. Π·na
√ni-
Gr. ἐνι·αυτό-
(m.) ‘Jahr’
(Gr. ἐνιαυτός)
1. PIE *eni·Σ
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ἐνι·Σ
Gr. ἤνι-
(a.) ‘jährig’
(Hom. ἦνιν)
1. PIE *ḗni-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ἤνι-
Goth. fair·ni-
(a.) ‘alt: old, antiquated: παλαιός: vetus’
(GoEtD. F14)
(Goth. fairni [A] Luk 5,39 CA; fairnjamma [sgD] 1Kr 5,8 A; fairnjans [plA] Mat 9,17 CA)
1. PIE *Π·ni̯o
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·ni̯a
2. Π·ni̯a
*-a → Ø
Loss of root-final -a
R=a›=0 → *Π·ni̯
3. Π·ni̯
-ni̯ -› -ni
Change of root-final -ni̯ into -ni
R=ni̯›=ni → Goth. Π·ni
Goth. fair·njan-
(a.) ‘alt: old, antiquated: παλαιός: vetus’
(GoEtD. F14)
(Goth. fairnjan [sgA] Eph 4,22 A B, fairnjana Mat 9,16 CA)
1. PIE *Π·ni̯on-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·ni̯an-
2. Π·ni̯an-
PIE *i̯ → j
Orthographic change of *i̯ into j
Ri̯›j → Goth. Π·njan-
Goth. fair·njin-
(a.) ‘alt: old, antiquated: παλαιός: vetus’
(GoEtD. F14)
(Goth. fairnjin [sgD] Luk 5,36 CA; Mrk 2,21 CA)
1. PIE *Π·ni̯en-
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → *Π·ni̯in-
2. Π·ni̯in-
PIE *i̯ → j
Orthographic change of *i̯ into j
Ri̯›j → Goth. Π·njin-
Goth. fair·njo·n
(a.f.n.) ‘alt: old, antiquated: παλαιός: vetus’
(GoEtD. F14)
(Goth. fairnjo [n.sgN] Luk 5,39 CA, fairnjons [f.sgG] 2Kr 3,14 A B)
1. PIE *Π·ni̯ēɑh·n
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *Π·ni̯āɑh·n
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. Π·ni̯āɑh·n
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·ni̯āh·n
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. Π·ni̯āh·n
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·ni̯ā·n
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. Π·ni̯ā·n
PIE *ā → ō
Change of *ā into ō
Rā›ō → *Π·ni̯ō·n
(XX:XX)
5. Π·ni̯ō·n
PIE *i̯ → j
Orthographic change of *i̯ into j
Ri̯›j → *Π·njō·n
6. Π·njō·n
*ō → o
Change of ō into o
Rō›o → Goth. Π·njo·n
√nin-
Goth. fair·nin-
(a.) ‘vorjährig, alt: praeteritus, prior’
(GoEtD. F15)
(Goth. fairnin [D] 2Kr 8,10 A B; 2Kr 9,2 A B)
Goth. fair·niþo-
(f.) ‘Alter: antiquity: παλαιότης: vetustas’
(GoEtD. F14)
(Goth. fairniþai [sgD] Rom 7,6 A, GoElB. 182, HbGo. 158,1)
1. PIE *Π·nitēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *Π·nitāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. Π·nitāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nitāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. Π·nitāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·nitā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. Π·nitā-
*t → þ
Affricativization of *t
Rt›þ → *Π·niþā-
5. Π·niþā-
PIE *ā → ō
Change of *ā into ō
Rā›ō → *Π·niþō-
(XX:XX)
6. Π·niþō-
*ō → o
Change of ō into o
Rō›o → Goth. Π·niþo-
√nol- √nel-
Hitt. anala-
(a.) ‘früher, alt; erfahren, erprobt’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *onolo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. anala-
Hitt. anala·z
(adv.) ‘früher’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *onolo·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. anala·Σ
Hitt. anali-
(a.) ‘früher, alt; erfahren, erprobt’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *onoli-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. anali-
√nos- √nes-
Gr. τετρά·ενεσ-
(a.) ‘vierjährig’
(GEW 1:518)
1. PIE *Π·enes-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. Π·ενεσ-


PIE √n- (vb.) ‘behandeln, wirken, tun, treiben, helfen, nützen’ (sb.) ‘Arbeit’
(IEW 754)
(Machek 1958:76ff.; Pyysalo: Av.)
√n-
√nɑh-
(Machek 1958:76ff., HEG A:30)
Lith. anúo-
(vb.) ‘tun’
(HEG A:30)
(Lith. anúoti [inf.])
1. PIE *onṓɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onṓh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. onṓh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *onṓ-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. onṓ-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anṓ-
4. anṓ-
*ṓ → úo
Change of ṓ into úo
Rṓ›úo → Lith. anúo-
Gr. ὄνα-
(vb.M.) ‘nützen, helfen, frommen’
(Gr. ὄνασθαι [inf.])
1. PIE *óneɑh-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *ónaɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. ónaɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ónah-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. ónah-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *óna-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. óna-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ὄνα-
√ni-
(HEG A:30f.)
(HW2 A:81f., AHPh. 85, Rieken 1999:107f., HIL. 216-8)
Pal. ani-
(vb.1.) ‘behandeln, bewirken, durchführen’
(DPal. 27, 50)
(Pal. a-ni-it-ti [3sg], HHand. 16)
1. PIE *oni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Pal. ani-
CLu. ani-
(vb.) ‘wirken, vollbringen, tun: Sum. KIN’
(DLL. 27)
(CLu. a-an-ni-ti, a-an-ni-i-ti, an-ni-i-ti [3sg])
1. PIE *oni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. ani-
Hitt. ani-
(vb.1.A.) ‘wirken, schaffen’
(HIL. 216)
(Hitt. a-ni-e-mi)
1. PIE *oni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani-
Dor. ὀνί·νᾱ-
(vb.A.) ‘deliver, profit, benefit, support’
(GEW 2:395)
1. PIE *oní·nēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *oní·nāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. oní·nāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *oní·nāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. oní·nāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *oní·nā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. oní·nā-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Dor. ὀνί·νᾱ-
√nio-
(Pyysalo)
gAv. xrū·nya-
(n.) ‘Bluttat, blutige Mißhandlung’
(AIWb. 539)
(gAv. xrūnyāt̰; to LAv. xrū- ‘blutiges, rohes Fleisch’)
1. PIE *Π·ni̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·ni̯a-
2. Π·ni̯a-
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → gAv. Π·nya-
CLu. ani̯a-
(vb.) ‘durchführen, behandeln, bewirken’
(HHand. 16)
(CLu. a-ni-ia, a-ni-e-ia-an-t[i... [3pl?])
1. PIE *oni̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. ani̯a-
Hitt. ani̯a-
(vb.) ‘wirken, schaffen’
(HEG A:30-31)
(Hitt. a-ni-ia-mi [1sg])
1. PIE *oni̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani̯a-
Pal. ani̯a-
(cs.) ‘wirken, tun’
(DPal. 50)
(Pal. a-ni-ia, a-ni-ia-ši [2sg])
1. PIE *oni̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Pal. ani̯a-
√nioi-
(Pyysalo: Hitt. gut·ani̯ei-)
Hitt. ani̯ai-
(vb.) ‘wirken, schaffen’
(HIL. 216)
(Hitt. a-ni-ia-e-ez-zi)
1. PIE *oni̯oi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani̯ai-
Pal. ani̯ei-
(vb.) ‘behandeln, bewirken, durchführen’
(DPal. 50)
(Pal. a-ni-e-iḫ-a [1sg], HHand. 16, DPal. 27)
1. PIE *oni̯ei-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Pal. ani̯ei-
Hitt. gut·ani̯ei-
(vb.1.) ‘herrisch behandeln’
(HHand. 87)
1. PIE *gɦɑut·oni̯ei-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦut·oni̯ei-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. gɦut·oni̯ei-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *gɦut·ani̯ei-
3. gɦut·ani̯ei-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. gut·ani̯ei-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ani̯ei-
(vb.) ‘wirken, schaffen’
(HIL. 216)
(Hitt. an-ni-i-ir, a-ni-i-e-i[r])
1. PIE *oni̯ei-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani̯ei-
√nion-
Hitt. ani̯an-
(n.) ‘Arbeit’
(HHand. 16)
1. PIE *oni̯on-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani̯an-
Hitt. ani̯ant-
(pt.) ‘wirken, schaffen’
(HHand. 16)
(Hitt. a-ni-ia-an-t-, a-ni-an-t-)
1. PIE *oni̯ont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani̯ant-
√niu-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. ani̯au̯ar-
(n.) ‘Opferzurüstung’
(HHand. 16)
(Hitt. a-ni-ia-u-ua-ar, a-ni-ia-u-ua-an-zi)
1. PIE *oni̯ou̯or-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani̯au̯ar-
Hitt. ani̯ur-
(n.) ‘Opferritus, Ritual’
(HEG A:32)
(Hitt. a-ni-ú-ur, a-ni-ur-aš, a-ni-ú-ri)
1. PIE *oni̯ur-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani̯ur-
Hitt. aniu̯·ei̯ani-
(fc.) ‘(magicienne, auteur d’un rituel)’
(NOMS. 78)
(Hitt. a-an-ni-ui/ú-ia-ni [All]
1. PIE *oniu̯·ei̯oni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. aniu̯·ei̯ani-
Gr. ὄνειαρ
(n.) ‘Nutzen, Wert, Hilfe, Erquickung’
(GEW 2:394)
(Gr. ὄνει(ϝ)αρ)
1. PIE *óneiu̯eɑhr-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *óneiu̯aɑhr-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. óneiu̯aɑhr-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *óneiu̯ahr-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. óneiu̯ahr-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *óneiu̯ar-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. óneiu̯ar-
*u̯ → Ø
Change of *u̯ into Ø
Ru̯›0 → *óneiar-
5. óneiar-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ὄνειαρ-
Gr. ὄνειατ-
(n.obl.) ‘Erquickungen, Speisen, Wertsachen, Geschenke’
(GEW 2:394)
(Gr. ὄνει(ϝ)ατ-)
1. PIE *óneiu̯eɑht-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *óneiu̯aɑht-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. óneiu̯aɑht-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *óneiu̯aht-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. óneiu̯aht-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *óneiu̯at-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. óneiu̯at-
*u̯ → Ø
Change of *u̯ into Ø
Ru̯›0 → *óneiat-
5. óneiat-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ὄνειατ-


PIE √n- (adv.) ‘unter’
(IEW 312, 766)
(Pyysalo: OAnat.)
√onon-
Hitt. anan
(adv.) ‘unter’
(HEG A:26)
1. PIE *onon
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. anan
CLu. anan
(adv.) ‘unter’
(HEG A:26)
(Carruba 1970a:86)
1. PIE *onon
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. anan
√onontoro-
HLu. anantara-
(a.comp.) ‘unterer: lower (with tu-na-sa(URBS))’
(CHLu. 10.36.38)
(HLu. á-na-tara/i-‹ › tu-na-sa(URBS))
1. PIE *onontoro-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. anantara-
HLu. anantara·ša-
(a.gen.?) ‘of the lower one’ (with tu-na-sá(URBS))’
(CHLu. 10.36.15)
(HLu. á-na-tara/i-sa-’ tu-na-sá(URBS))
1. PIE *onontoro·so-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anantara·sa-
2. anantara·sa-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → HLu. anantara·ša-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√enen-
LycA. ẽnẽ
(prep.) ‘under’
(LuPG 62)
(Lyc. ẽnẽ xñtawata xerixehe ‘Under king Xerxes’)
1. PIE *enen
*en → ẽn
Emergence of nasal vowel ẽ
ReN›ẽN → *ẽnẽn
2. ẽnẽn
*-ã/ẽn → -ã/ẽ
Loss of word-final nasal
R=ãn›=ã → LycA. ẽnẽ
√ni-
AV. ní
(adv.) ‘down, back; in, into, within’
(MonWil. 538)
(AV. ní [AV. 10,8,7])
Arm. ni·
(pref.) ‘nieder’
(IEW 312)
(Arm. ni-, cf. e.g. EtDiArm. 499 s.v. nayim)
1. PIE *ní·Σ
*í → i
Orthographic absence of accent
Rí›i → Arm. ni·Σ
RV. ni·mná-
(n.) ‘Niederung, Tiefe’
(KEWA 2:166)
1. PIE *ni·mnó-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → RV. ni·mná-
OInd. ni·mna-
(a.) ‘tief liegend’
(AiGr. 2/2:777)
1. PIE *ni·mno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → OInd. ni·mna-
√ner-
(IEW 312, 766)
(WP. 2:333f.)
Gr. ἔ·νερο-
(m.pl) ‘die Unterirdischen’
(GEW 1:514-5)
(Gr. οἱ ἔνεροι)
1. PIE *é·nero-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ἔ·νερο-
AV. nā́raka-
(a.) ‘zur Hölle in Beziehung stehend’
(KEWA 2:138)
1. PIE *nḗroko-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nḗraka-
2. nḗraka-
*ḗ → ā́
Change of *ḗ into ā́
Rḗ›ā́ → AV. nā́raka-
AV. nā́raka-
(m.) ‘Unterwelt, Hölle (with loká-)’
(EWA 2:37)
1. PIE *nḗroko-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nḗraka-
2. nḗraka-
*ḗ → ā́
Change of *ḗ into ā́
Rḗ›ā́ → AV. nā́raka-
√neroi-
TochA. ñare-
(sb.) ‘infernum, sceleratum apud infernos sedes’
(Poucha 108)
(TochA. ñare)
1. PIE *neroi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nerai-
2. nerai-
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯arai-
3. ni̯arai-
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñarai-
4. ñarai-
ai → ē
Monophthongization of *ai
Rai›ē → *ñarē-
5. ñarē-
*ē → e
Change of *ē into e
Rē›e → TochA. ñare-
TochA. ñare·ṣi-
(a.) ‘inferni, infernalis’
(Poucha 108)
(TochA. ñare ṣi-)
1. PIE *neroi·sí-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nerai·sí-
2. nerai·sí-
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯arai·sí-
3. ni̯arai·sí-
*sí → ṣí
Palatalization of *sí
Rsí›ṣ → *ni̯arai·ṣí-
4. ni̯arai·ṣí-
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñarai·ṣí-
5. ñarai·ṣí-
ai → ē
Monophthongization of *ai
Rai›ē → *ñarē·ṣí-
6. ñarē·ṣí-
*ē → e
Change of *ē into e
Rē›e → *ñare·ṣí-
7. ñare·ṣí-
*í → i
Orthographic absence of accent
Rí›i → TochA. ñare·ṣi-
Gr. νειρό-
(a.) ‘der Unterste’
(Gr. νειρός [sgN])
1. PIE *neri̯ó-
*eri̯ → eir
Epenthesis of *i
Reri̯›eir → *neiró-
2. neiró-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νειρό-
Arm. ner·kʼoy
(adv.) ‘drinnen’
(IEW 311-4)
(Arm. nerkʼoy)
√nertr-
Umbr. nertro-
(a.) ‘links: sinistro’
(WbOU. 492-3)
(Umbr. nertru [sgAbl])
Gr. νέρτερο-
(a.comp.) ‘unterer, tieferer, unterirdischer’
(GEW 1:514-5)
(Gr. νέρτερος)
1. PIE *nértero-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νέρτερο-
√nr-
TochB. nrai
(n.) ‘hell’
(DTochB. 351)
(TochB. nrain)
1. PIE *nrōi-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *nrāi-
2. nrāi-
āi → ai
Orthographic change of āi into ai
Rāi›ai → TochB. nrai-
TochB. nrai·ṣa-
(a.) ‘hellish’ (n.) ‘denizen of hell’
(DTochB. 351)
(TochB. nraiṣṣe)
1. PIE *nrōi·si̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nrōi·si̯a-
2. nrōi·si̯a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *nrāi·si̯a-
3. nrāi·si̯a-
*si̯ → ṣ
Palatalization of *si̯
Rsi̯›ṣ → *nrāi·ṣa-
4. nrāi·ṣa-
āi → ai
Orthographic change of āi into ai
Rāi›ai → TochB. nrai·ṣa-
√neur-
TochB. ñor
(adv.) ‘below, beneath, under, down’
(DTochB. 272)
(TochB. ñor)
1. PIE *neur
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯aur
2. ni̯aur
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñaur
3. ñaur
au → ō
Monophthongization of *au
Rau›ō → *ñōr
4. ñōr
*ō → o
Change of ō into o
Rō›o → TochB. ñor
TochA. ñor·īya-
(a.comp.) ‘lower’
(DTochB. 272)
(TochB. ñorīya kātso)
1. PIE *neur·Σ
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯aur·Σ
2. ni̯aur·Σ
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñaur·Σ
3. ñaur·Σ
au → ō
Monophthongization of *au
Rau›ō → *ñōr·Σ
4. ñōr·Σ
*ō → o
Change of ō into o
Rō›o → TochA. ñor·Σ
TochB. ñoru·wär
(adv.) ‘downstream’
(DTochB. 272)
(TochB. kaucūwär (...) ñoruwär ‘upstream (...) downstream’ ‹cf. TochB. wär- ‘stream’›)
1. PIE *neuru·Σ
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯auru·Σ
2. ni̯auru·Σ
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñauru·Σ
3. ñauru·Σ
au → ō
Monophthongization of *au
Rau›ō → *ñōru·Σ
4. ñōru·Σ
*ō → o
Change of ō into o
Rō›o → TochB. ñoru·Σ
TochB. ñormya-
(a.) ‘≈ lower’
(DTochB. 272)
(TochB. ñormye bhūmi)
1. PIE *neurmi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *neurmi̯a-
2. neurmi̯a-
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯aurmi̯a-
3. ni̯aurmi̯a-
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñaurmi̯a-
4. ñaurmi̯a-
au → ō
Monophthongization of *au
Rau›ō → *ñōrmi̯a-
5. ñōrmi̯a-
*ō → o
Change of ō into o
Rō›o → *ñormi̯a-
6. ñormi̯a-
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → TochB. ñormya-
TochB. ñormiya-
(a.) ‘≈ lower’
(DTochB. 272)
(TochB. ñormiye wassi///)
1. PIE *neurmii̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *neurmii̯a-
2. neurmii̯a-
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯aurmii̯a-
3. ni̯aurmii̯a-
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñaurmii̯a-
4. ñaurmii̯a-
au → ō
Monophthongization of *au
Rau›ō → *ñōrmii̯a-
5. ñōrmii̯a-
*ō → o
Change of ō into o
Rō›o → *ñormii̯a-
6. ñormii̯a-
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → TochB. ñormiya-


PIE √n- √on- √en- (vb.) ‘gebären’ (sb.) ‘Mutter, Schwester, Bruder’
(IEW 754)
√ono-
Hitt. ana-
(c.) ‘Mutter’ (HHand. 15)
(HEG A:24)
(Hitt. an-na-aš [sgN], an-na-an [sgA])
1. PIE *ono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ana-
CLu. ana-
(c.) ‘Mutter’
(DLL. 27)
1. PIE *ono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. ana-
√eno-
Lyd. ẽna-
(c.) ‘Mutter’
(LydWb. 106)
(Lyd. ẽnaś [sgN])
1. PIE *eno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ena-
2. ena-
*en → ẽn
Emergence of nasal vowel ẽ
ReN›ẽN → Lyd. ẽna-
LycB. ẽnesi-
(a.gen.) ‘mütterlich’
(DLycLg. 116)
1. PIE *enesi-
*en → ẽn
Emergence of nasal vowel ẽ
ReN›ẽN → LycB. ẽnesi-
√nono-
CLu. nana·ḫid-
(n.) ‘Brüderlichkeit’ (o.ä.)
(HHand. 110)
1. PIE *nono·ɦɑid-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nono·ɦid-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nono·ɦid-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nana·ɦid-
3. nana·ɦid-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. nana·ḫid-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
HLu. nana·šara-
(FEMINAc.) ‘sister’
(CHLu. 278)
(HLu. (FEMINA)na-na-sa5+ra/i-za)
1. PIE *nono·soro-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nana·sara-
2. nana·sara-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → HLu. nana·šara-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
CLu. nana·šrei̯a-
(c.) ‘Schwester’
(DLL. 73)
(CLu. na-a-na-aš-ri[-ia], NIN-ia-an)
1. PIE *nono·srei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nana·srei̯a-
2. nana·srei̯a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → CLu. nana·šrei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√nɑh-
√nonɑh-
(IEW 754)
RV. nanā́-
(f.) ‘Mama, Mütterchen’
(WbRV. 707)
(RV. tatáḥ (...) nanā́ [sgN] [9.112.3.])
1. PIE *nonḗɑh-
PIE *ḗɑ → ā́ɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ḗɑ
Rḗɑ›ā́ɑ → *nonā́ɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nonā́ɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nonā́h-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nonā́h-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanā́h-
4. nanā́h-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → RV. nanā́-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
Alb. nanë-
(f.) ‘Mutter, Amme’
(AlbEtD. 291)
(Alb. nanë ‹a dial. (Gheg) form›)
1. PIE *nonēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nonāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nonāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nonāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nonāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nonā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nonā-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanā-
5. nanā-
*ā → ë
Change of *ā into Alb. ë
Rā›ë → Alb. nanë-
(XX:XX)
RV. nánāndar-
(f.) ‘des Mannes Schwester’
(WbRV. 707)
(RV. nánāndari [sgL])
1. PIE *nónēɑhɦɑender-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *nónēɑhɦɑander-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. nónēɑhɦɑander-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nónāɑhɦɑander-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
3. nónāɑhɦɑander-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nónāhɦander-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
4. nónāhɦander-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *nánāhɦander-
5. nánāhɦander-
PIE *ɦ → Ø
Loss of segmental *ɦ
Rɦ›0 → *nánāhander-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
6. nánāhander-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nánāander-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
7. nánāander-
*āa → ā
 Contraction of āa into ā
Rāa›ā → *nánānder-
8. nánānder-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → RV. nánāndar-
AV. nánāndur-
(f.) ‘des Mannes Schwester’
(EWA 2:10)
(AV. nánāndur-)
1. PIE *nónēɑhɦɑendur-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *nónēɑhɦɑandur-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. nónēɑhɦɑandur-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nónāɑhɦɑandur-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
3. nónāɑhɦɑandur-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nónāhɦandur-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
4. nónāhɦandur-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *nánāhɦandur-
5. nánāhɦandur-
PIE *ɦ → Ø
Loss of segmental *ɦ
Rɦ›0 → *nánāhandur-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
6. nánāhandur-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nánāandur-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
7. nánāandur-
*āa → ā
 Contraction of āa into ā
Rāa›ā → AV. nánāndur-
√nenɑh-
SCr. nena-
(f.) ‘Mutter’
(KEWA 2:131)
(EWA 2:9)
1. PIE *nenēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nenāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nenāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nenāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nenāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nenā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nenā-
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → SCr. nena-
√oni-
Hitt. ani-
(c.) ‘Mutter’
(HHand. 15)
1. PIE *oni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ani-
CLu. anei̯a-
(a.) ‘mütterlich’ (HHand. 16)
(DLL. 27)
(CLu. [a]-an-ni-ia-an)
1. PIE *onei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. anei̯a-
√eni-
LycA. ẽni-
(c.) ‘Mutter’
(DLycLg. 20)
(LycA. ẽni [sgN])
1. PIE *eni-
*en → ẽn
Emergence of nasal vowel ẽ
ReN›ẽN → LycA. ẽni-
√ni-
HLu. ni-
(INFANSc.) ‘child, son’
(CHLu. 10.14.1)
(HLu. (INFANS)ni-sa [sgN])
Hitt. ni·ga-
(c.) ‘Schwester’
(HHand. 112)
(Hitt. niga-)
1. PIE *ni·gɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ni·gɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ni·gɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·gɦa-
3. ni·gɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. ni·ga-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Kpd. ni·ga-
(PNc.) ‘Schwester’
(NOMS. 878)
(Kpd. ni-ga)
1. PIE *ni·gɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ni·gɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ni·gɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·gɦa-
3. ni·gɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Kpd. ni·ga-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ni·gna-
(c.) ‘Bruder: Sum. ŠEŠ’
(HHand. 112)
1. PIE *ni·gɑɦno-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ni·gɦno-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ni·gɦno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·gɦna-
3. ni·gɦna-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. ni·gna-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
HLu. ni·mu̯aza-
(INFANSc.) ‘son’
(CHLu. 96)
(HLu. (INFANS)ni-mu-wa/i-za-sa)
1. PIE *ni·mu̯odɑɦi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ni·mu̯odɦi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ni·mu̯odɦi̯o-
PIE *dɦi̯ → jɦ
Assibilation of *dɦ before *i/i̯
Rdɦi̯›jɦ → *ni·mu̯ojɦo-
3. ni·mu̯ojɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·mu̯ajɦa-
4. ni·mu̯ajɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *ni·mu̯aja-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. ni·mu̯aja-
j → z
Change of j into z
Rj›z → HLu. ni·mu̯aza-
HLu. ni·za-
(INFANSc.) ‘son’
(CHLu. 148)
(HLu. (INFANS)ni-za-sa)
1. PIE *ni·dɑɦi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ni·dɦi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ni·dɦi̯o-
PIE *dɦi̯ → jɦ
Assibilation of *dɦ before *i/i̯
Rdɦi̯›jɦ → *ni·jɦo-
3. ni·jɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·jɦa-
4. ni·jɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *ni·ja-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. ni·ja-
j → z
Change of j into z
Rj›z → HLu. ni·za-
HLu. ni·u̯a-
(c.) ‘daughter?’
(CHLu. 148)
(HLu. ni-wa/i-za [pl])
1. PIE *ni·u̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. ni·u̯a-
HLu. ni·u̯arani-
(INFANSc.) ‘child’
(CHLu. 258)
(HLu. (INFANS)ni-wa/i-ra/i-ni-zi [plN])
1. PIE *ni·u̯oroni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. ni·u̯arani-
HLu. ni·u̯aza-
(INFANSc.) ‘child, son’
(CHLu. 96, 148)
(HLu. (INFANS)ni-wa/i-za-sa)
1. PIE *ni·u̯odɑɦi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ni·u̯odɦi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ni·u̯odɦi̯o-
PIE *dɦi̯ → jɦ
Assibilation of *dɦ before *i/i̯
Rdɦi̯›jɦ → *ni·u̯ojɦo-
3. ni·u̯ojɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·u̯ajɦa-
4. ni·u̯ajɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *ni·u̯aja-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. ni·u̯aja-
j → z
Change of j into z
Rj›z → HLu. ni·u̯aza-
√noni-
CLu. nani-
(c.) ‘frère’
(DLL. 73)
(CLu. na-a-ni-e-ia [D])
1. PIE *noni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. nani-
Hitt. nani-
(LÚc.) ‘(homme d’Išmiriga-)’
(NOMS. 861.3)
(Hitt. na-ni-iš)
1. PIE *noni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. nani-
HLu. nani-
(Ic.) ‘brother ‹see the context›’
(CHLu. 2.27.17)
(HLu. na-ni-sa FRATER-la-wa/i+ra/i-sa)
1. PIE *noni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nani-
√neni-
LycA. nẽni-
(c.) ‘frère’
(DLycLg. 44)
1. PIE *neni-
*en → ẽn
Emergence of nasal vowel ẽ
ReN›ẽN → LycA. nẽni-


PIE √n- √on- √en- (sb.) ‘dux, iudex’ (vb.) ‘ducere, educare’
(IEW –)
(Pyysalo)
√eno-
(HEG E:106)
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. ena-
(pr.*) ‘≈ abrichten’
(HHand. 31)
(in Hitt. enant-, see below)
1. PIE *eno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ena-
Goth. kind·in-
(m.) ‘ἡγεμών: Statthalter: governor’
(GoEtD. K22)
(Goth. kindins [sgN])
1. PIE *Π·eno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·ena-
2. Π·ena-
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → Goth. Π·ina-
OLat. dub·eno-
(m.) ‘δεσπότης’
(WH. 1:375)
(OLat. dubenus)
Lat. dom·ino-
(m.) ‘Hausherr’
(WH. 1:367)
(Lat. dominus)
RV. vivā́c·ana-
(m.) ‘Schiedrichter’
(WbRV. 1292)
1. PIE *Π·eno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·ena-
2. Π·ena-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → RV. Π·ana-
RV. trait·aná-
(dm.) ‘mit tritá- verwandter Gott’
(WbRV. 560)
1. PIE *Π·enó-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *Π·ená-
2. Π·ená-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → RV. Π·aná-
Hitt. enant-
(pt.) ‘abgerichtet, zahm’
(HHand. 31)
1. PIE *enont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. enant-
√ononu-
(HEG A:27)
Hitt. ananu-
(cs.) ‘ausbilden, unterrichten: train, educate’
(HHand. 15)
(Hitt. an-na-nu-ut, an-na-nu-ua-an-zi)
1. PIE *ononu-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ananu-
Kpd. ananu-
(Ic.) ‘‹cf. above›’
(NOMS. 65.1.)
(Kpd. a-na-nu)
1. PIE *ononu-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Kpd. ananu-
Hitt. ananu-
(fc.) ‘‹cf. above›’
(NOMS. 65.2)
(in Akd. a-na-nu)
1. PIE *ononu-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ananu-
Hitt. ananu̯ant-
(pt.) ‘ausgebildet, gezähmt’
(HHand. 15)
(Hitt. an-na-nu-ua-an-t-)
1. PIE *ononu̯ont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ananu̯ant-
Hitt. ananuḫa-
(a.) ‘ausgebildet, zahm, abgerichtet (von Wildtieren)’
(HHand. 16)
(Hitt. an-na-nu-uḫ-ḫa-an)
1. PIE *ononuɑho-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ononuho-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ononuho-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ananuha-
3. ananuha-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. ananuḫa-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. ananuške/a-
(pr.) ‘ausbilden, unterrichten: train, educate’
(HIL. 213)
(Hitt. an-na-nu-uš-ke/a-)
1. PIE *ononuski̯e/o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *ononusḱe/o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. ononusḱe/o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ananusḱe/a-
3. ananusḱe/a-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *ananuske/a-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. ananuske/a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ananuške/a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)


PIE √n- √no- √ne- (vb.) ‘treiben, fahren, wenden, leiten’ (sb.) ‘Arm, Hand’
(IEW 760)
(Pyysalo: Gr. + OInd.)
√no-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. na-
(vb.2.) ‘wenden, lenken, schicken’
(HEG N:253-7
(Hitt. na-i; ‹or PIE *noi̯·i?›)
1. PIE *no-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. na-
OInd. na-
(m.) ‘gift: Geschenk’
(MonWil. 523)
(Lex. nas [sgN])
1. PIE *no-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → OInd. na-
Hitt. ena-
(vb.) ‘treiben (Tiere)’
(HHand2 35)
(Hitt. enna- ; thus not for “penna-” against Tischler)
1. PIE *eno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ena-
Hitt. išḫu·na-
(c.) ‘Oberarm: upper ‹išḫu-› arm’
(HHand. 64)
(Hitt. iš-ḫu-na-aš [sgN])
1. PIE *Π·no-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·na-
√neno-
(Pyysalo)
Gr. ἀπο·νένο-
(pr.M.) ‘ἀποστρέφεται’
(LSJ. 210)
(Gr. ἀπονένεται· ἀποστρέφεται)
1. PIE *hɑepo·néno-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *hɑapo·néno-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. hɑapo·néno-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *hapo·néno-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. hapo·néno-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *apo·néno-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. apo·néno-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ἀπο·νένο-
√nono-
(Sturtevant CGr. 1:215, 247)
Hitt. nana-
(vb.2.intr.) ‘treiben, ziehen, marschieren, fahren’
(HEG N:272, HIL. 692)
(Hitt. n]a-an-na-i [3sg] 1 UDU ap-pa-an-[zi] [3pl], na-an-na-aḫ-ḫi [1sg], na-na-an-zi, na-an-na-ú)
1. PIE *nono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. nana-
CLu. nana-
(vb.1.) ‘lenken, leiten, richten, schicken, wenden’
(DLL. 73, HHand. 110)
(CLu. na-na-a-at-ti [3sg], na-n[a-a]n-ta)
1. PIE *nono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. nana-
Hitt. apa nana·-
(vb.2.tr.) ‘zurückziehen, -treiben’
(HEG N:272)
(Hitt. GIŠḫa-at-tal-ua-an-za GIM-an GIŠSAG.GUL EGIR-pa na-an-na-a-i [3sg])
1. PIE *Π·nono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·nana-
CLu. nana·ma-
(pt.) ‘geführt’
(HHand. 110)
(CLu. [nan]aman KUB xxxv 54 Rs. iii 17, nanamma- ‘geführt’ [HHand. 110])
1. PIE *nono·mo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. nana·ma-
√nonoiio-
Hitt. nanai̯a-
(d.) ‘(cult in Malitaškuria-)’ (Siegelová 1971:25)
(OHP. 1:324-5)
(Hitt. na-na-ia(-aš) [Abs])
1. PIE *nonoii̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanaii̯a-
2. nanaii̯a-
*aii̯a → aia
Loss of *i̯ between *ai and *a
Raii̯a›aia → *nanaia-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
3. nanaia-
* a i a → a i̯ a
Desyllabification of *i between *a and *a
Raia›ai̯a → Hitt. nanai̯a-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
Hitt. nanai̯a-
(dc.) ‘-(?)-’
(OHP. 1:325)
(Hitt. na-na-ia-aš-ma-za URUki-iš-ši-na-an [e-eš-zi] ‘the god nanaia- is in URUkišinan-’)
1. PIE *nonoii̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanaii̯a-
2. nanaii̯a-
*aii̯a → aia
Loss of *i̯ between *ai and *a
Raii̯a›aia → *nanaia-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
3. nanaia-
* a i a → a i̯ a
Desyllabification of *i between *a and *a
Raia›ai̯a → Hitt. nanai̯a-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
Hitt. nanai̯a-
(mc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 855.2)
(Hitt. na-na-ia-an [sgA])
1. PIE *nonoii̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanaii̯a-
2. nanaii̯a-
*aii̯a → aia
Loss of *i̯ between *ai and *a
Raii̯a›aia → *nanaia-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
3. nanaia-
* a i a → a i̯ a
Desyllabification of *i between *a and *a
Raia›ai̯a → Hitt. nanai̯a-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
HLu. nanai̯a-
(Ic.) ‘-(?)-’
(CHLu. 10.36.16)
(HLu. Ina-na-ia-’)
1. PIE *nonoii̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanaii̯a-
2. nanaii̯a-
*aii̯a → aia
Loss of *i̯ between *ai and *a
Raii̯a›aia → *nanaia-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
3. nanaia-
* a i a → a i̯ a
Desyllabification of *i between *a and *a
Raia›ai̯a → HLu. nanai̯a-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
CLu. piḫa·nanai̯a-
(mc.) ‘-(?)-’
(NOMS. 965)
(in Hitt. pí-ḫa-na-na-i[a-aš] [sgN])
1. PIE *Π·nonoii̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·nanaii̯a-
2. Π·nanaii̯a-
*aii̯a → aia
Loss of *i̯ between *ai and *a
Raii̯a›aia → *Π·nanaia-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
3. Π·nanaia-
* a i a → a i̯ a
Desyllabification of *i between *a and *a
Raia›ai̯a → CLu. Π·nanai̯a-
(SPIE §3.2.4.2)
√nɑh-
(Pyysalo)
Lith. anúo-
(vb.) ‘treiben’
(HEG A:30)
(Lith. anúoti [inf.])
1. PIE *onṓɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onṓh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. onṓh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *onṓ-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. onṓ-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anṓ-
4. anṓ-
*ṓ → úo
Change of ṓ into úo
Rṓ›úo → Lith. anúo-
Hitt. naḫ·ši-
(c.) ‘Handvoll (Öl, Honig, Früchte & Wein)’
(HEG N:251)
(Hitt. Ì.DUG.GA na-aḫ-ši-iš [sgN])
1. PIE *neɑh·Σ
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑh·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑh·Σ
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nah·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nah·Σ
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫ·Σ
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫ·zi-
(c.) ‘Handvoll: Akd. (½) UPNU’ (CHD N:341)
(HEG N:251-2)
(Hitt. [G]EŠTIN! na-aḫ-zi-i[š] [sgN])
1. PIE *neɑh·Σ
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑh·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑh·Σ
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nah·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nah·Σ
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫ·Σ
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. naḫa·ši-
(c.) ‘Handvoll’ (eine kleine Mengenangabe)
(HEG N:251)
(Hitt. 1 na-aḫ-ḫa-ši-iš Ì.NUN = “1 N. Butterschmalz”)
1. PIE *neɑho·Σ
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑho·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑho·Σ
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *naho·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. naho·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naha·Σ
4. naha·Σ
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. naḫa·Σ
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nɑhi-
(IEW 760)
RV. ná.i-
(ao.) ‘führen, leiten’
(WbRV. 739)
(RV. náïṣi [2sg])
1. PIE *néɑHi-
PIE *éɑ → áɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *éɑ
Réɑ›áɑ → *náɑHi-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. náɑHi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *náHi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. náHi-
PIE *H → .
Metric hiatus from PIE *h/ɦ
RH›' → RV. ná.i-
RV. ninā́y·a
(pf.A.) ‘führen, leiten’
(WbRV. 739)
(RV. ninā́ya [3sg], Brugmann's law II, see SPIE 121ff.)
1. PIE *ninóɑhi̯·e
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ninóhi̯·e
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ninóhi̯·e
PIE *óhCV → ā́hCV
Brugmann’s Law for *óhCV
RóHCV›ā́HCV → *ninā́hi̯·e
(SPIE §2.3.7)
3. ninā́hi̯·e
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *ninā́i̯·e
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. ninā́i̯·e
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → *ninā́i̯·a
5. ninā́i̯·a
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → RV. ninā́y·a
RV. na.itár-
(m.) ‘Führer, Leiter, Lenker’
(WbRV. 754)
(RV. naïtā́ [sgN])
1. PIE *neɑHitór-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *naɑHitór-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. naɑHitór-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *naHitór-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. naHitór-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *naHitár-
4. naHitár-
PIE *H → .
Metric hiatus from PIE *h/ɦ
RH›' → RV. na.itár-
RV. nī́-
(ao.) ‘darbringen’
(WbRV. 735)
(RV. ánītām [3du])
1. PIE *nɑ́hi-
PIE *ɑ́ḫi → íḫi
Distant assimilation of *ɑ́ and *i
Rɑ́Hi›íHi → *níhi-
(SPIE §3.2.6)
2. níhi-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *níi-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. níi-
*íi → ī́
Contraction of í and i
Ríi›ī́ → RV. nī́-
√noi-
Hitt. nai-
(vb.2.) ‘drehen’
(HHand. 109)
1. PIE *noi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. nai-
HLu. nai-
(Ic.) ‘‹cf. above›’
(CHLu. 10.38/1.5)
(HLu. Ina-i-sá)
1. PIE *noi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nai-
Hitt. para (...) nai-
(vb.2.) ‘lenken, leiten, richten, schicken, wenden’
(HEG N:254)
(Hitt. pa-ra-a na-it-ti [2sg] ‘schickest’)
1. PIE *Π·noi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·nai-
Hitt. arḫa (...) nai-
(vb.2.) ‘loslassen’
(HEG N:254)
(Hitt. ar-ḫa-pát na-iš [pret3sg])
1. PIE *Π·noi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·nai-
Hitt. ḫaku·nai-
() ((DUG)c./n.) ‘Gefäß für Öl ‹Ölgefäß?›’
(HEG H:125)
(Hitt. ḫakunai-, EHS 207)
1. PIE *hɑeku·noi-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *hɑaku·noi-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. hɑaku·noi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *haku·noi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. haku·noi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *haku·nai-
4. haku·nai-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. ḫaku·nai-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nei-
Hitt. nei-
(vb.2.A.) ‘wenden, lenken, leiten, richten, schicken’
(HEG N:253-7)
(Hitt. ne-e-eḫ-ḫi, ne-e-eḫ-[ḫu-un])
Hitt. nei-
(URUn.) ‘(um Apamea am Orontes)’ (OGHErg. 111)
(OGH. 281)
(Hitt. ne-e, ni-i)
Hitt. nei̯a-
(vb.M.) ‘sich wenden’
(HEG N:253-7)
(Hitt. ne-e-a, ne-a [3sg], ni-ia-an-ta-ri, ni-ia-ri, ne-ia-aḫ-ḫa-ri [1sg])
1. PIE *nei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. nei̯a-
Hitt. nei̯a-
(vb.) ‘wenden, lenken, leiten, richten, schicken’
(HEG N:253-7)
(Hitt. ne-e-ia-an-zi, ni-ia-ši [2sg])
1. PIE *nei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. nei̯a-
Hitt. nei̯a-
(KUR.URU, URU.) ‘-(?)-’
(OGH. 281)
(Hitt. ne-ia, ni-ia, ne-i-ia)
1. PIE *nei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. nei̯a-
HLu. nei̯a-
(CRUS.CRUSvb.) ‘turn, follow’
(CHLu. 2.9.13)
(HLu. CRUS.CRUS-ta)
1. PIE *nei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nei̯a-
HLu. nei̯a-
(Ic.) ‘-(?)-’
(CHLu. 10.36.19)
(HLu. Ini-ia [D], Ini-ia-sa [10.18.3])
1. PIE *nei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nei̯a-
HLu. nei̯a·šḫa-
(CRUS.CRUSc.) ‘procession’
(CHLu. 2.11.16)
(HLu. CRUS.CRUS(-)ní-ia-sa-ha-na)
1. PIE *nei̯o·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nei̯a·Σ
HLu. nei̯a·šatala-
(CRUS.CRUSc.) ‘successor’
(CHLu. 2.24.13)
(HLu. CRUS.CRUS(-)ní-ia-sa-ta-la-na ‹cf. HLu. azu·šatala- ‘ride’ for the suffix’›)
1. PIE *nei̯o·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nei̯a·Σ
HLu. nei̯a·za-
(CRUS.CRUSvb.) ‘‹≈ make turn, follow?›’
(CHLu. 2.11.21)
(HLu. CRUS.CRUS[(-)ni?]-ia-za-i)
1. PIE *nei̯o·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nei̯a·Σ
√nonei-
Hitt. arḫa·nanei-
(vb.) ‘herbeitreiben’
(HEG N:272)
(Hitt. ar-ḫa na-an-ni-i-er)
1. PIE *Π·nonei-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·nanei-
√neinei-
Hitt. arḫa·neinei̯a-
(vb.) ‘treiben, wegtreiben’
(HEG N:272)
(Hitt. 2 UDU.ḪI.A (...) ar-ḫa ne-in-ni-ia-an-zi [3pl])
1. PIE *Π·neinei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·neinei̯a-
√nou-
Hitt. ḫarga·nau-
(c./n.) ‘ein Körperteil, Sohle?, Ferse?’
(HHand. 42)
(Hitt. ḫar-ga-na-ú, ḫar-ga-na-u-ua-aš)
1. PIE *ɦɑergi̯o·nou-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *ɦɑargi̯o·nou-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. ɦɑargi̯o·nou-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ɦargi̯o·nou-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. ɦargi̯o·nou-
PIE *gi/i̯ → g
Palatovelarization of *gi/i̯ into ǵ
RgI›ǵ → *ɦarǵo·nou-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. ɦarǵo·nou-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ɦarǵa·nau-
5. ɦarǵa·nau-
PIE *ǵ → g
Depalatalization of Centum *ǵ
Rǵ›g → *ɦarga·nau-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. ɦarga·nau-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. ḫarga·nau-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. išḫu·nau-
(c.) ‘Oberarm’
(HHand. 64)
(Hitt. iš-ḫu-na-ú-uš [sgN])
1. PIE *Π·nou-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·nau-
Hitt. išḫu·nau-
(n.) ‘Oberarm’
(HHand. 64)
(Hitt. [iš]-ḫu-na-ú, iš-ḫu-na-u-ua, iš-ḫu-na-u-ua-aš, iš-ḫu-na-u-i)
1. PIE *Π·nou-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·nau-
Hitt. išḫu·nau̯ant-
(c.) ‘Oberarm’
(HHand. 64)
(Hitt. iš-ḫu-na-u-ua-an-za)
1. PIE *Π·nou̯ont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·nau̯ant-
Hitt. ḫarga·nau̯ant-
(c.) ‘ein Körperteil, Sohle?, Ferse?’
(HHand. 42)
(Hitt. ḫar-ga-na-u-ua-an-za)
1. PIE *ɦɑergi̯o·nou̯ont-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *ɦɑargi̯o·nou̯ont-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. ɦɑargi̯o·nou̯ont-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ɦargi̯o·nou̯ont-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. ɦargi̯o·nou̯ont-
PIE *gi/i̯ → g
Palatovelarization of *gi/i̯ into ǵ
RgI›ǵ → *ɦarǵo·nou̯ont-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. ɦarǵo·nou̯ont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ɦarǵa·nau̯ant-
5. ɦarǵa·nau̯ant-
PIE *ǵ → g
Depalatalization of Centum *ǵ
Rǵ›g → *ɦarga·nau̯ant-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. ɦarga·nau̯ant-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. ḫarga·nau̯ant-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√noui-
Hitt. ḫarga·nau̯i-
(c.) ‘ein Körperteil, Sohle?, Ferse?’
(HHand. 42)
(Hitt. ḫar-ga-na-ú-i, ḫar-ga-na-u-i-ša-at [N])
1. PIE *ɦɑergi̯o·nou̯i-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *ɦɑargi̯o·nou̯i-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. ɦɑargi̯o·nou̯i-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ɦargi̯o·nou̯i-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. ɦargi̯o·nou̯i-
PIE *gi/i̯ → g
Palatovelarization of *gi/i̯ into ǵ
RgI›ǵ → *ɦarǵo·nou̯i-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. ɦarǵo·nou̯i-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ɦarǵa·nau̯i-
5. ɦarǵa·nau̯i-
PIE *ǵ → g
Depalatalization of Centum *ǵ
Rǵ›g → *ɦarga·nau̯i-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. ɦarga·nau̯i-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. ḫarga·nau̯i-
(SPIE §4.6.3)


PIE √n- √no- √ne- (pref.) ‘eben, gleich’ (prep.) ‘zusammen’
(IEW –)
(Goedegebuure 2010:314; Pyysalo)
√ono-
(Goedegebuure 2010: HLu.)
(Pyysalo: Hitt.)
HLu. ana
(CUMprep.*) ‘cum: with’
(CHLu. 1.1.15.)
(in HLu. CUM-na)
1. PIE *ono
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. ana
Hitt. ana·niga-
(c.) ‘Schwester (von derselben Mutter)’
(HHand. 15)
(Hitt. an-na-ne-ku-uš [plA], an-na-ni-ku-uš, not ‘Dirne, Prostituierte’, see HEG A:26-7)
1. PIE *ono·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ana·Σ
Hitt. ana·uli-
(a.) ‘gleichrangig, ebenbürtig’
(HEG A:29)
(Hitt. an-na-ú-li-, EHS 212)
1. PIE *ono·uli-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ana·uli-
Hitt. ana·ulilei̯a-
(URUa.) ‘(im Lande Tarḫuntaša)’
(OGHErg. 5)
(Hitt. an-na-ú-li-li-ia-aš [sgN])
1. PIE *ono·ulilei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ana·ulilei̯a-
Hitt. ana·u̯ali-
(a.) ‘gleichrangig, ebenbürtig’
(HHand. 16)
(Hitt. an-na-ú-li-e-eš)
1. PIE *ono·u̯oli-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ana·u̯ali-
√no-
(Pyysalo)
RV. ná·veda-
(a.) ‘kundig ‹lit. ‘*with·Veda-’›’
(WbRV. 716)
1. PIE *nó·Σ
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → RV. ná·Σ
RV. ná·vedas-
(a.) ‘mit √bhav + [G] = aufmerken, vernehmen’
(WbRV. 716)
1. PIE *nó·Σ
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → RV. ná·Σ
RV. ná·vedas-
(a.) ‘vertraut, bekannt’ (m.) ‘Vertrauer [G]’
(WbRV. 716)
1. PIE *nó·Σ
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → RV. ná·Σ
CLu. na·šarta-
(GKLc.) ‘Konkubine’ (HHand. 111)
(HEG N:278-9)
(Hitt. 1 NINDA.SIG A-NA dNIN.É.GAL na-šar-ta-aš-ša [plD] ŠA dIM)
1. PIE *no·sorto-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *na·sarta-
2. na·sarta-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → CLu. na·šarta-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
HLu. na·šarta-
(d.) ‘(cult of Tešup & Hepat of Aleppo)’
(HEG N:278)
(HLu. na-sá+ra-tá)
1. PIE *no·sorto-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *na·sarta-
2. na·sarta-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → HLu. na·šarta-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. na·šartei-
(GKLc.) ‘Konkubine?’
(HEG N:278)
(Hitt. 1 NINDA.SIG A-NA dNIN.É.GAL na-šar-ti-ia [sgD] ŠA dU)
1. PIE *no·sortei-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *na·sartei-
2. na·sartei-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. na·šartei-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√oni-
(Goedegebuure 2010:314)
HLu. ani
(CUMprep.*) ‘with, for’
(CHLu. 2.6.18)
(HLu. in CUM-ni, CUM-ní)
1. PIE *oni
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. ani


PIE √n- √on- √en- (vb.) ‘glänzen; erscheinen’
(IEW –)
(Pyysalo)
√ono-
Hitt. ana-
(URU.KI.) ‘(König von Ana- = Heliopolis)’
(OGH. 15)
(Hitt. a-na “in Briefen von Ramses II”)
1. PIE *ono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ana-
HLu. ana-
(REGIO.) ‘‹cf. above?›’
(CHLu. 3.6.10)
(HLu. á-na(REGIO)-pa-wa/i-sa)
1. PIE *ono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. ana-
√onoi-
CLu. anai-
(vb.M.) ‘‹brennen, glänzen› (subject: paḫur ‘Feuer’)’
(DLL. 26)
(CLu. a-na-it-ta-ri [3sg])
1. PIE *onoi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. anai-
HLu. anaita·u̯ana-
(REGIOn./c.?) ‘Anaitean’
(CHLu. 3.1.10)
(HLu. á-na-i-tá(REGIO)-wa/i-na-‘)
1. PIE *onoito·u̯ono-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. anaita·u̯ana-
√onei-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. deišḫ·anei̯a-
(vb.1.&M.) ‘im Traum erscheinen’
(HHand. 174)
1. PIE *Π·onei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. Π·anei̯a-
LAv. aini-
(adv.bs.) ‘zum Schein, als der Wahrheit entspricht’
(AIWb. 126)
(LAv. ainim baraiti)
1. PIE *oni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ani-
2. ani-
*ani → aini
Anaptyxis of *i
RanI›ainI → LAv. aini-
√neim-
(Pyysalo)
MidIr. nīam-
(f.) ‘Glanz, Schönheit’
(DIL. 478f.)
(LEIA N-16; MidIr. niam [N], nēime [G], nēim [D])
1. PIE *nēimēɑh
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nēimāɑh
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nēimāɑh
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nēimāh
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nēimāh
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nēimā
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nēimā
*ēRC → eRC
Osthoff’s Law for *ēRC
RēRC›eRC → *neimā
(SPIE §2.5.8)
5. neimā
*ei → ē
Monophthongization of *ei into ē
Rei›ē → *nēmā
6. nēmā
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *nēma
7. nēma
*-a → Ø
Loss of root-final -a
R=a›=0 → MidIr. nēm
OIr. nīama-
(vb.) ‘faire briller’
(LEIA N-16)
(OIr. nīamaid [3sg])
1. PIE *nēimēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nēimāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nēimāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nēimāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nēimāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nēimā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nēimā-
*ēRC → eRC
Osthoff’s Law for *ēRC
RēRC›eRC → *neimā-
(SPIE §2.5.8)
5. neimā-
*ei → ē
Monophthongization of *ei into ē
Rei›ē → *nēmā-
6. nēmā-
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → OIr. nēma-
TochA. ñemi-
(n.) ‘gemma: Skt. ratna-’
(LeTokh. 1:325f.)
(Poucha 111; TochA. ñemi [N], ñemyis [G], ñemyaṃ [L], ñemyo [I])
1. PIE *nēimi-
PIE *ē → i̯ ā
Change of *ē into i̯ā
Rē›i̯ā → *ni̯āimi-
2. ni̯āimi-
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñāimi-
3. ñāimi-
*āiC → aiC
Osthoff’s Law for āiC
RāiC›aiC → *ñaimi-
(Pyysalo 2013:2.5.8.2)
4. ñaimi-
ai → ē
Monophthongization of *ai
Rai›ē → *ñēmi-
5. ñēmi-
*ē → e
Change of *ē into e
Rē›e → TochA. ñemi-
√nisKo-
RV. niṣká-
(m.) ‘goldener Halsschmuck: Geldstück’
(WbRV. 735)
1. PIE *niskó-
PIE *is → iš
Ruki-rule for *is
RrukIOIA → *niškó-
(SPIE §4.9.2.2)
2. niškó-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *nišká-
3. nišká-
PIE *š → ṣ
Retroflexation of Ruki *š
Rš›ṣ → RV. niṣká-
(SPIE §4.9.2.2)
RV. niṣká·grīva-
(a.) ‘Goldschmuck am Halse tragend’
(KEWA 2:169)
1. PIE *niskó·Σ
PIE *is → iš
Ruki-rule for *is
RrukIOIA → *niškó·Σ
(SPIE §4.9.2.2)
2. niškó·Σ
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *nišká·Σ
3. nišká·Σ
PIE *š → ṣ
Retroflexation of Ruki *š
Rš›ṣ → RV. niṣká·Σ
(SPIE §4.9.2.2)
√nit-
Lat. niteo-
(pr.2.) ‘glänzen’
(WH. 2:171)
(Lat. niteō)
1. PIE *nitei̯o-
*ei̯e → eo
Loss *i̯ between e and o
Rei̯o›eo → Lat. niteo-
Lat. nitōr-
(m.) ‘Glanz, Glätte’
(WH. 2:171)
(Lat. nitor, nitōris)
Gr. νίτρο-
(n.) ‘Natron’
(GEW 2:321)
1. PIE *nítro-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νίτρο-
Lat. nitro-
(n.) ‘Laugensalz, Soda, Natron’
(WH. 2:171)
Hitt. nitri-
(NA4n.) ‘Natron, Soda, Salpeter’
(HEG N:336)
(Hitt. ni-it-ri [sgNA], ni-it-ri-az [Abl])


PIE √n- (neg.) ‘no’
(IEW 756-7)
(Bugge and Torp apud Knudtzon 1902:106, 118)
√nouo-
(Pyysalo)
(or PIE *neu̯o; ‹note the Avestan meaning, also in Luwian?›)
CLu. nau̯a
(neg.) ‘nicht’
(HEG N:294)
(CLu. na-a-ua)
1. PIE *nou̯o
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. nau̯a
HLu. nau̯a
(neg.) ‘nicht’
(HEG N:294)
(HLu. NEG-wa/i, na-wa/i)
1. PIE *nou̯o
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nau̯a
LAv. nava
(neg.) ‘durchaus/überhaupt nicht, keineswegs’
(AIWb. 1043)
1. PIE *nou̯o
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nau̯a
2. nau̯a
PIE *u̯ → v
Affricativization of PIE *u̯ into v
Ru̯›v → LAv. nava
LAv. nava·čiš
(neg.) ‘durchaus nicht mehr’
(AIWb. 1044)
1. PIE *nou̯o·ku̯is
PIE *is → iš
Ruki-rule for *is
RrukIIr → *nou̯o·ku̯iš
(SPIE §4.9.2.2)
2. nou̯o·ku̯iš
PIE *ku̯ → ču̯
2nd palatalization of *ku̯
Rku̯›ču̯ → *nou̯o·ču̯iš
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. nou̯o·ču̯iš
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nau̯a·ču̯iš
4. nau̯a·ču̯iš
*ČU → Č
Loss of labial after affricative
RČU›Č → *nau̯a·čiš
(SPIE §4.8.3)
5. nau̯a·čiš
PIE *u̯ → v
Affricativization of PIE *u̯ into v
Ru̯›v → LAv. nava·čiš


PIE √n- √on- √en- (prep./adv.) ‘in, zu, hin’
(IEW 311-314)
√on-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. an·da
(adv.) dabei, darin’ (postp.L) ‘in, an, dazu’
(HHand. 17)
(Hitt. an-da)
1. PIE *on·dɦɑe
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *on·dɦɑa
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. on·dɦɑa
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *on·dɦa
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. on·dɦa
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·dɦa
4. an·dɦa
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. an·da
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. an·da
(prep.) ‘hinein-, ein-’
(HHand. 17)
1. PIE *on·dɦɑe
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *on·dɦɑa
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. on·dɦɑa
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *on·dɦa
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. on·dɦa
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·dɦa
4. an·dɦa
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. an·da
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
CLu. an·da
(prep.) ‘hinein’
(HHand. 17)
(CLu. an-da)
1. PIE *on·dɦɑe
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *on·dɦɑa
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. on·dɦɑa
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *on·dɦa
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. on·dɦa
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·dɦa
4. an·dɦa
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → CLu. an·da
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
CLu. an·da
(adv.) ‘dabei?: dans: in’
(DLL. 28)
(CLu. (a-)an-da, a-an-ta)
1. PIE *on·dɦɑe
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *on·dɦɑa
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. on·dɦɑa
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *on·dɦa
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. on·dɦa
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·dɦa
4. an·dɦa
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → CLu. an·da
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
HLu. an·da
(prep.) ‘in’
(CHLu. 1.1.12)
(HLu. a-ta)
1. PIE *on·dɦɑe
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *on·dɦɑa
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. on·dɦɑa
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *on·dɦa
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. on·dɦa
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·dɦa
4. an·dɦa
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → HLu. an·da
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Pal. an·da
(ptcl.) ‘hinein: into’
(HHand. 17)
(Pal. a-an-ta)
1. PIE *on·dɦɑe
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *on·dɦɑa
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. on·dɦɑa
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *on·dɦa
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. on·dɦa
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·dɦa
4. an·dɦa
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Pal. an·da
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
OHitt. ·an
(loc.ptcl.) ‘von außen nach innen’
(HEG A:24)
1. PIE *·on
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → OHitt. ·an
OCS. on·ušta
(f.) ‘Sandale: Schuhwerk’
(Sadnik √625+1035)
1. PIE *on·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·Σ
2. an·Σ
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → OCS. on·Σ
OCS. ǫ·dolь
(f.) ‘Tal’
(Sadnik √625+157)
1. PIE *on·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·Σ
2. an·Σ
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → OCS. on·Σ
OCS. ǫ·troba
(f.) ‘Mutter-, Unterleib, das Innere; κοιλία’
(Sadnik √625)
1. PIE *on·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·Σ
2. an·Σ
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → OCS. on·Σ
OCS. ǫ·trь
(adv.) ‘εἴσω: innen, herein, innerlich’
(Sadnik √625)
1. PIE *on·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *an·Σ
2. an·Σ
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → OCS. on·Σ


PIE √nɑhku- √nɑɦgu- (vb.) ‘biegen, krümmen, neigen’ (sb.) ‘Kuppe, Schlucht’
(IEW 754)
(Pyysalo: LAv. + OCS. + Gr.)
√nɑhku-
(Pyysalo)
Att. νάπη-
(f.) ‘waldiger Talgrund, Schlucht’
(GEW 2:288)
1. PIE *néɑhku̯ēɑh-
PIE *éɑ → áɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *éɑ
Réɑ›áɑ → *náɑhku̯ēɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. náɑhku̯ēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *náɑhku̯āɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
3. náɑhku̯āɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *náhku̯āh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
4. náhku̯āh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *náku̯ā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. náku̯ā-
*ku/u̯ → p
Bilabialization of labiovelar q into p
RkU›p → *nápā-
6. nápā-
ā –> ē (Att)
Attican change of ā –› ē
Rā›ēAtt → *nápē-
7. nápē-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Att. νάπη-
LAv. tīrō·nakaϑwa-
(PN.m.) ‘EN eines Gläubigen’
(AIWb. 651)
(LAv. tīrō.nakaϑwa-)
1. PIE *Π·neɑhku̯otu̯o-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *Π·naɑhku̯otu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. Π·naɑhku̯otu̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nahku̯otu̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. Π·nahku̯otu̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·nahku̯atu̯a-
4. Π·nahku̯atu̯a-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·naku̯atu̯a-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. Π·naku̯atu̯a-
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → *Π·nakatu̯a-
(SPIE §4.8.3)
6. Π·nakatu̯a-
*tR → ϑR
Affricativisation of *t before resonants
RtR›ϑR → *Π·nakaϑu̯a-
7. Π·nakaϑu̯a-
*ϑu̯ → ϑw
Affricativisation of *u̯ after dental fricative ϑ
Rϑu̯›ϑw → LAv. Π·nakaϑwa-
RV. nā́ka-
(n.) ‘Himmelsgewölbe, Himmelskuppe, Himmel’
(WbRV. 721)
1. PIE *nṓɑhku̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nṓhku̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nṓhku̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nṓhku̯a-
3. nṓhku̯a-
PIE *ṓ → ā́
Change of *ṓ into ā́
Rṓ›ā́ → *nā́hku̯a-
4. nā́hku̯a-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nā́ku̯a-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. nā́ku̯a-
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → RV. nā́ka-
(SPIE §4.8.3)
OCS. vŭz·nakŭ-
(a.) ‘zurückgeneigt, rücklings’
(Sadnik √566)
1. PIE *Π·nōɑhku̯o
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nōhku̯o
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nōhku̯o
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·nōhku̯a
3. Π·nōhku̯a
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *Π·nāhku̯a
4. Π·nāhku̯a
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·nāku̯a
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. Π·nāku̯a
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → *Π·nāka
(SPIE §4.8.3)
6. Π·nāka
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *Π·nāko
7. Π·nāko
*-o → -u
Change of root-final o into u
R=o›=u → *Π·nāku
8. Π·nāku
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *Π·naku
9. Π·naku
*u → ŭ
Orthographic change of *u into ŭ
Ru›ŭ → OCS. Π·nakŭ
LAv. uz·nāka-
(PN.m.) ‘EN eines Gläubigen’
(AIWb. 408)
(LAv. usnāka-)
1. PIE *Π·nōɑhku̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nōhku̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nōhku̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·nōhku̯a-
3. Π·nōhku̯a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *Π·nāhku̯a-
4. Π·nāhku̯a-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·nāku̯a-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. Π·nāku̯a-
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → LAv. Π·nāka-
(SPIE §4.8.3)
RV. ropa·nā́kā-
(PN.m.) ‘Drossel’ (Sāy.); lit. ‘Fuchs+Himmel’
(WbRV. 1186)
1. PIE *Π·nṓɑhku̯ēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *Π·nṓɑhku̯āɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. Π·nṓɑhku̯āɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nṓhku̯āh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. Π·nṓhku̯āh-
PIE *ṓ → ā́
Change of *ṓ into ā́
Rṓ›ā́ → *Π·nā́hku̯āh-
4. Π·nā́hku̯āh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·nā́ku̯ā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. Π·nā́ku̯ā-
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → RV. Π·nā́kā-
(SPIE §4.8.3)
Gr. νενώπη-
(pf.) ‘= τεταπείνωται’
(GEW 2:600)
1. PIE *nenṓɑhku̯ē-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nenṓhku̯ē-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nenṓhku̯ē-
*ku/u̯ → t
Palatalization of labiovelar *ku/u̯
RkU›tFr → *nenṓhtē-
3. nenṓhtē-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nenṓtē-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nenṓtē-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νενώτη-
Gr. προνωπήσ-
(a.) ‘vorwärts gebeugt, geneigt’
(GEW 2:600)
(DELG 941)
1. PIE *pronōɑhku̯ḗs-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *pronōhku̯ḗs-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. pronōhku̯ḗs-
*ku/u̯ → t
Palatalization of labiovelar *ku/u̯
RkU›tFr → *pronōhtḗs-
3. pronōhtḗs-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *pronōtḗs-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. pronōtḗs-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. προνωτήσ-


PIE √ni- (vb.) ‘Getreide durch Schwingen reinigen, worfeln, schwingen’
(IEW 761)
(Pyysalo 2014:56-7: CLu.)
√ni-
(Pyysalo 2014:56-7)
CLu. nani-
(GKLvb.?) ‘‹winnow›’ (HHand. 110, HEG N:273)
(DLL. 74)
(CLu. [na]m-ma DINGIRLUM fdu-ut-tari-ia-ti-iš GKLna-ni-ti [3sg] gán-ga-ti-ti [sgI])
1. PIE *noni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. nani-
√neihɑk-
(IEW 761)
Lith. niekó-
(vb.) ‘(Getreide) schwingen, worfeln’
(LiEtWb. 502)
1. PIE *neihɑkḗɑh-
PIE *ḗɑ → ā́ɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ḗɑ
Rḗɑ›ā́ɑ → *neihɑkā́ɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. neihɑkā́ɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *neihkā́h-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. neihkā́h-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *neikā́-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. neikā́-
PIE *ā́ → ṓ
Change of *ā́ into ṓ
Rā́›ṓ → *neikṓ-
(XX:XX)
5. neikṓ-
*ei -> ie
Change of *ei into ie
Rei›ie → *niekṓ-
6. niekṓ-
*ṓ → ó
Change of ṓ into ó
Rṓ›ó → Lith. niekó-
Latv. nikâ-
(vb.) ‘Grütze in einer Mulde schwingen’
(GEW 2:123)
(‹Latv. iẽ → PIE *eihɑ›)
1. PIE *neihɑkḗɑh-
PIE *ḗɑ → ā́ɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ḗɑ
Rḗɑ›ā́ɑ → *neihɑkā́ɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. neihɑkā́ɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *neihkā́h-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. neihkā́h-
*ā́H → âH
Latvian tone rule for *ā́h
RAccLatv3 → *neihkâh-
4. neihkâh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *neikâ-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. neikâ-
*ei -> ie
Change of *ei into ie
Rei›ie → Latv. niekâ-
Gr. νείκλο-
(n.) ‘Getreideschwinge’
(GEW 2:123)
(Gr. νεῖκλο-)
1. PIE *neíhɑklo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *neíhklo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. neíhklo-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *neíklo-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. neíklo-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νείκλο-
√nihɑk-
Gr. νικάο-
(pr.) ‘Getreide schwingen, worfeln’
(Gr. νικάω)
1. PIE *nihɑkéɑhi̯o-
PIE *éɑ → áɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *éɑ
Réɑ›áɑ → *nihɑkáɑhi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. nihɑkáɑhi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nihkáhi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nihkáhi̯o-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nikái̯o-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nikái̯o-
*Vi̯V → VhV
Change of *i̯ into h between vowels
RVi̯V›VV → *nikáo-
5. nikáo-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νικάο-
Gr. νίκλο-
(n.) ‘Getreideschwinge’
(GEW 2:123)
(Gr. νίκλο-)
1. PIE *níhɑklo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *níhklo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. níhklo-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *níklo-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. níklo-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νίκλο-
OIr. cruith·necht-
(f.) ‘wheat: Weizen’
(DIL. 162)
(LEIA C-254f.)
1. PIE *Π·nihɑkto
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nihkto
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nihkto
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·nikto
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. Π·nikto
kt → kht
Lenition of voiceless stop *k
Rkt›kht → *Π·nikhto
4. Π·nikhto
*iCo → eCo
Lowering of *i into e
Rikhto›ekhto → *Π·nekhto
5. Π·nekhto
-o → Ø
Loss of root-final -o
R=o›=0Restr → *Π·nekht
6. Π·nekht
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → OIr. Π·necht
Cymr. gwe·nith-
(m.) ‘wheat: Weizen’
1. PIE *Π·nihɑkto
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nihkto
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nihkto
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·nikto
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. Π·nikto
*-o → -Ø
Loss of root-final *o
R=o›=0 → *Π·nikt
4. Π·nikt
*kt → th
Loss of k before t and lenition
Rkt›th → Cymr. Π·nith
Corn. gwa·neth-
(n.) ‘froment: Weizen’
(LEIA C-255)
1. PIE *Π·nihɑkto
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nihkto
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nihkto
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *Π·nikto
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. Π·nikto
ikto -› ekto
Umlaut of ikto into ekto
Rikto›ekto → *Π·nekto
4. Π·nekto
*-o → -Ø
Loss of root-final *o
R=o›=0 → *Π·nekt
5. Π·nekt
*kt → th
Loss of k before t and lenition
Rkt›th → Corn. Π·neth
Cymr. nithi-
(m./f.) ‘winnow, sift’
(Cymr. nithiaf)
1. PIE *nihɑkti-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nihkti-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nihkti-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nikti-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
3. nikti-
*kt → th
Loss of k before t and lenition
Rkt›th → Cymr. nithi-
Bret. niza-
(vb.) ‘worfeln: vanner le grain’
(LEIA C-255)
1. PIE *nihɑktēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nihɑktāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nihɑktāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nihktāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nihktāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *niktā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. niktā-
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *nikta-
5. nikta-
*kt → z
Loss of k before t and lenition
Rkt›z → Bret. niza-


PIE √ni- √oni- √eni- (dem.pron.) ‘jener’
(IEW 281)
(Hrozný 1917:135; Pyysalo: Gr.)
√oni-
(HEG A:29)
(HW2 A:81, HIL. 209-10)
Hitt. a·ni-
(dem.pron.) ‘jener: [IŠ-TU AN-NI-I]Š: GÚ.R[I.TA]’
(HEG A:29-30)
(Hitt. an-ni-iš KBo 1.42 iii 33)
1. PIE *o·ni-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. a·ni-
Hitt. a·ni·šan
(adv.) ‘früher, einst’
(HEG A:31)
1. PIE *o·ni·son
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *a·ni·san
2. a·ni·san
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. a·ni·šan
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√eni-
Hitt. e·ni-
(dem.pron.) ‘that one’
(HEG E:106-7)
(HiuA §54, e-ni-iš, e-ni, e-ni-uš)
Hitt. e·ni·šan
(adv.) ‘thus, as stated’
(HIL. 260-1)
(Hitt. e-ni-iš-ša-an)
1. PIE *e·ni·son
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *e·ni·san
2. e·ni·san
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. e·ni·šan
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√ni-
Gr. νί-
(dem.pron.) ‘eum, eam, id; se’
(Gr. νίν [sgA])
1. PIE *ní-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νί-


PIE √ni- √noi- √nei- (sb.) ‘Acker, Feld, Flur, Weide, Nahrung’
(IEW 313)
(Pyysalo: CLu.)
√nei-
Gr. νεό-
(f.) ‘Feld, Flur: fallowland’
(GEW 2:297-8)
(Od. νεός)
1. PIE *nei̯ó-
*Vi̯V → VhV
Change of *i̯ into h between vowels
RVi̯V›VV → *neó-
2. neó-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νεό-
√noimo-
(Pyysalo)
CLu. naima-
(pt.) ‘‹pasture(land)?, graze?, food?›’
(DLL. 73)
(CLu. parḫaddu na-im-ma-an-za [plD])
1. PIE *noimo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. naima-
CLu. ḫu̯i·naima-
(sb.) ‘‹blood/life·pasture/food, i.e. ambrosia?›’
(DLL. 46)
(CLu. (the gods) take (lalanti) ḫu-u-i-na-i-ma-an, but you feed yourself, KUB ix 31 Vs. ii 30-32)
1. PIE *Π·noimo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. Π·naima-
√neiuo-
Gr. νειό-
(f.) ‘Feld, Flur: fallowland’
(GEW 2:297-8)
(Il. νειός)
1. PIE *neiu̯ó-
*u̯ → Ø
Change of *u̯ into Ø
Ru̯›0 → *neió-
2. neió-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νειό-


PIE √nik- (vb.) ‘ergreifen, erheben, entstehen, keimen’
(IEW 761 [diff.])
(LIV2:451; Benveniste 1954:40; Meiser 1986:85-7)
√nik-
(CHD N:438f.)
(Benveniste 1954:40)
Hitt. ni·nik-
(vb.) ‘(auf)heben (Truppen); aufbrechen (Siegel)’
(HIL. 700)
(Hitt. ni-ni-kán-zi [3pl] ‹note -k- against Sturtevant’s law›)
OCS. vŭz·niko-
(pr.) ‘sich aufrichten’
(Sadnik √577)
(OCS. vŭznikǫ [1sg])
1. PIE *Π·neiko-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·neika-
2. Π·neika-
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *Π·neiko-
3. Π·neiko-
*ei → ī
Monophthongization of *ei into ī
Rei›ī → *Π·nīko-
4. Π·nīko-
*ī → i
Change of *ī into i
Rī›i → OCS. Π·niko-
OCS. vŭz·niknǫ-
(vb.) ‘emporspriessen, sich emporrichten, nüchtern’
(Sadnik √577)
(OCS. vŭzniknǫti [inf.])
1. PIE *Π·neiknun
*ei → ī
Monophthongization of *ei into ī
Rei›ī → *Π·nīknun
2. Π·nīknun
*-un → -ǫ
Emergence of nasal vowel ǫ
Run›ǫ → *Π·nīknǫ
3. Π·nīknǫ
*ī → i
Change of *ī into i
Rī›i → OCS. Π·niknǫ
Pol. wz·nikną-
(vb.) ‘zum Vorschein kommen, sich erheben’
(LiEtWb. 503)
1. PIE *Π·neiknun
*ei → ī
Monophthongization of *ei into ī
Rei›ī → *Π·nīknun
2. Π·nīknun
*-un → -ǫ
Emergence of nasal vowel ǫ
Run›ǫ → *Π·nīknǫ
3. Π·nīknǫ
*ī → i
Change of *ī into i
Rī›i → *Π·niknǫ
4. Π·niknǫ
*ǫ → ą
Change of *ǫ into ą
Rǫ›ą → Pol. Π·nikną
√nink-
(IEW 761)
(LIV2:451 + AC:53)
Umbr. ninc-
(vb.) ‘ergreifen’
(Meiser 1986:85-87)
(Umbr. ninctu [ipv3sg])
1. PIE *nink-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → Umbr. ninc-
Hitt. ninkeišar-
(n.) ‘Erhöhung, Erhebung’
(HEG N:330)
1. PIE *ninkeisor-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ninkeisar-
2. ninkeisar-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ninkeišar-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√ninink-
Hitt. ni·nink-
(vb.1.A.) ‘in Bewegung setzen, antreiben, bewegen’
(HEG N:328)
(Hitt. ni-ni-ik-[ta], ni-ni-in-kán-[du], ni-ni-in-ku-un)
Hitt. ni·nink-
(vb.M.) ‘sich aufrüherisch benehmen, sich erheben’
(HEG N:328)
(Hitt. ni-ni-ik-ta-ri)
Hitt. ni·nink-
(vb.1.A.) ‘(Truppen, auf)heben; Siegel aufbrechen’
(HHand. 113)
(Hitt. ni-ni-ik-mi, ni-ni-in-kán-zi)
Hitt. ni·nink-
(vb.1.M.) ‘sich aufheben’
(HHand. 113)
Hitt. pedi ni·nink-
(vb.1.M.) ‘vom Ort wegnehmen’
(HHand. 113)
Hitt. šer arḫa ni·nink-
(vb.1.M.) ‘(Totengeister) aufstören’
(HHand. 113)
Hitt. ni·ninkant-
(pt.) ‘ausgerissen, ausgefranst’
(HHand. 113)
(Hitt. ni-ni-in-kán-t-)
1. PIE *ni·ninkont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ni·ninkant-
Hitt. ni·ninkant-
(a.) ‘schwierig?’ ‹with MU.KAMḪI.A›
(HHand. 113)
1. PIE *ni·ninkont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ni·ninkant-
Hitt. ni·ninkant-
(pt.) ‘erhöht’
(HEG N:330)
(Hitt. ni-ni-in-kán)
1. PIE *ni·ninkont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ni·ninkant-
Hitt. ni·ninkeiška-
(iter.) ‘(Truppen) aufbieten’
(HEG N:330)
(Hitt. nu-uš-ši 1 ME ÉRINMEŠ ni-ni-in-ki-iš-kán-du)
1. PIE *ni·ninkeiski̯o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *ni·ninkeisḱo-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. ni·ninkeisḱo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·ninkeisḱa-
3. ni·ninkeisḱa-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *ni·ninkeiska-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. ni·ninkeiska-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ni·ninkeiška-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ni·ninkeišar-
(n.) ‘Erhöhung, Erhebung’ (HIL. 700)
(HEG N:330)
(Hitt. ni-ni-in-ke-eš-šar-za [in a broken context])
1. PIE *ni·ninkeisor-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ni·ninkeisar-
2. ni·ninkeisar-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ni·ninkeišar-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ni·ninku̯a-
(vb.sb.bs.) ‘(Truppen) aufbieten’
(HEG N:330)
(Hitt. na-an-kán A-NA ÉRIN ŠA KU[(R) UGUTI)] [ni]-ni-in-ku-u-an-zi ú-e-ri-at)
1. PIE *ni·ninku̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ni·ninku̯a-
Hitt. ni·ninku̯a-
(n.) ‘Aushebung’ (HIL. 700)
(HEG N:330)
(Hitt. ŠA ANŠE.KU]R.RAMEŠ ni-ni-in-ku-ua-aš[(-)... [vb.sb.sgG])
1. PIE *ni·ninku̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ni·ninku̯a-


PIE √neiol- √neiel- (vb.) ‘hängen’
(IEW –)
(Pyysalo: Hitt. + Lat.)
√neio/el-
(Pyysalo)
(CHD N:437-8, HEG N:309; to Hitt. nei- ‘wenden’, HEG N:253-7)
Hitt. ninei̯al-
(GIŠn.) ‘Wiege: cradle’
(HEG N:327-8)
(Hitt. ni-ni-ia-al, ni-ni-ia-al-li, ni-ni-ia-la-aš)
1. PIE *ni·nei̯ol-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. ni·nei̯al-
OLat. no·neolā-
(f.) ‘papillae, quae ex faucibus caprārum dēpendent’
1. PIE *no·nei̯olēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *no·nei̯olāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. no·nei̯olāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *no·nei̯olāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. no·nei̯olāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *no·nei̯olā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. no·nei̯olā-
*ei̯e → eo
Loss *i̯ between e and o
Rei̯o›eo → OLat. no·neolā-
Hitt. nei̯elant-
(a.) ‘angehängt (um den Hals)’
(HEG N:309)
(Hitt. ne-e-la-an [NA]; against Eichner 1975:157-161)
1. PIE *nei̯elont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. nei̯elant-


PIE √nin- (a.) ‘liquid’
(IEW –)
(Pyysalo)
√nin-
(Pyysalo 2014:58-59)
Hitt. nin-
(vb.) ‘quench one’s thirst, drink one's fill, get drunk’
(HIL. 701)
(Hitt. ni-in-zi [3sg])
OIr. nin-
(sb.) ‘cloud, wave’
(DIL. 477-478)
(OIr. nin, LEIA N-4)
1. PIE *nino
-o → Ø
Loss of root-final -o
R=o›=0Restr → OIr. nin
√ninɑh-
OIr. ninach-
(a.) ‘cloudy’
(DIL. 478)
(LEIA N-4)
1. PIE *ninēɑhko
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nināɑhko
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nināɑhko
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nināhko
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nināhko
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nināko
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nināko
VkV → VkhV
Lenition of voiceless stop *k
Rk›kh → *ninākho
5. ninākho
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *ninakho
6. ninakho
-o → Ø
Loss of root-final -o
R=o›=0Restr → *ninakh
7. ninakh
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → OIr. ninach
√ningɑɦ-
(CHD N:443f.)
Hitt. ning-
(vb.1.A.) ‘sich satt trinken, sich betrinken’
(HHand. 113)
(Hitt. ni-ik, ni-ik-zi, ni-in-kán-zi)
1. PIE *ningɑɦ-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ningɦ-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ningɦ-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. ning-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ninga-
(d.) ‘-(?)-’ ‹cf. GhR. 295, Riemschneider 1970:44 n. 43›
(OHP. 1:340)
(Hitt. ni-in-ga-aš, nin-ga-aš [sgN])
1. PIE *ningɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ningɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ningɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ningɦa-
3. ningɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. ninga-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ningant-
(pt.) ‘sich satt trinken, sich betrinken’
(HIL. 701-2)
(Hitt. ni-in-kán-t-, SHV 143)
1. PIE *ningɑɦont-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ningɦont-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ningɦont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ningɦant-
3. ningɦant-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. ningant-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ninganu-
(cs.) ‘make drink to satisfaction, drench’
(HIL. 701)
(Hitt. ni-in-ga-nu-ua-an-zi, [n]i-in-ga-nu-nu-u[n] [1sg])
1. PIE *ningɑɦonu-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ningɦonu-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ningɦonu-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ningɦanu-
3. ningɦanu-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. ninganu-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ešpi·ningadar-
(n.) ‘satiation of hunger and thirst’
(HIL. 468)
(Hitt. išpiningadar-)
1. PIE *espɑhi·ningɑɦodɑɦor-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *esphi·ningɦodɦor-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. esphi·ningɦodɦor-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *esphi·ningɦadɦar-
3. esphi·ningɦadɦar-
PIE Th → T
Absence of voiceless aspirates
RTh›T → *espi·ningɦadɦar-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. espi·ningɦadɦar-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *espi·ningadar-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. espi·ningadar-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ešpi·ningadar-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√ningɑhi-
Hitt. ningei-
(vb.) ‘quench one’s thirst, drink full, get drunk’
(HIL. 701)
(Hitt. ni-in-ki [ipv2sg], ni-in-ki-iḫ-ḫ[u-ut] [2sg])
1. PIE *ningɑɦei-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ningɦei-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ningɦei-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. ningei-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√ninbɑɦ-
(IEW 316 [diff.])
(Pyysalo)
OIr. nimb-
(sb.) ‘cloud, a drop’
(DIL. 478)
(LEIA N-17)
1. PIE *ninbɑɦo
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ninbɦo
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ninbɦo
*bɦ → b
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›b → *ninbo
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. ninbo
*nb → mb
Change of *n into m before b
Rnb›mb → *nimbo
4. nimbo
-o → Ø
Loss of root-final -o
R=o›=0Restr → OIr. nimb
Lat. nimbo-
(m.) ‘Sturz-, Sturmregen, Regenwolke’
(WH. 2:168)
(cf. Lat. membra for preservation of *e in Cemb-)
1. PIE *ninbɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ninbɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ninbɦo-
*bɦ → f
Affricativization of labial *bɦ
Rbɦ›f → *ninfo-
3. ninfo-
*nf → mf
Labialization of *n before f
Rnf›mf → *nimfo-
4. nimfo-
*f → b
Change of *f into b
Rf›b → Lat. nimbo-


PIE √neki- √noki- (a.) ‘wichtig, wert, lieb’ (sb.) ‘Ehre, Bedeutung, Kraft, Gott’
(IEW –)
(van Windekens: Toch.; Pyysalo: Hitt.; for the semantics, cf. Hitt. dašu-, Gr. θεός)
√nokii-
(HEG N:257-61)
(CHD N:364ff.)
Hitt. naki-
(n.) ‘Ehre, Bedeutung, Kraft’
(HHand. 110)
(Hitt. na-ak-ki [NA], na-ak-ki-it [sgI])
1. PIE *noki̯i-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *noḱi-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. noḱi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naḱi-
3. naḱi-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → Hitt. naki-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
Hitt. naki-
(vb.) ‘be honoured/important/difficult/an obstacle’
(HIL. 686)
(Hitt. na-ak-ke-ez-zi, HIL. 685-6)
1. PIE *noki̯i-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *noḱi-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. noḱi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naḱi-
3. naḱi-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → Hitt. naki-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
Hitt. naki-
(a.) ‘wichtig, schwerwiegend, wert, lieb’
(HHand. 110)
(Hitt. na-ak-ki-iš, DUGUD, na-ak-ki-ia)
1. PIE *noki̯i-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *noḱi-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. noḱi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naḱi-
3. naḱi-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → Hitt. naki-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
Hitt. naki̯an-
(n.) ‘Schwere, Wichtigkeit, Ansehen’
(HIL. 685)
(Hitt. na-ak-ki-ia-an-ni)
1. PIE *nokii̯on-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *noḱi̯on-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. noḱi̯on-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naḱi̯an-
3. naḱi̯an-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → Hitt. naki̯an-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
√nekit-
(van Windekens apud GEW 2:300-1)
TochB. ñäkta-
(m.) ‘Skt. deva-’
(DTochB. 263)
(TochB. ñäktetsä = Skt. devānām)
1. PIE *nekito-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *neḱto-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. neḱto-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *neḱta-
3. neḱta-
PIE *e → i̯ a
Change of *e into i̯a
Re›i̯a → *ni̯aḱta-
4. ni̯aḱta-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *ni̯akta-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. ni̯akta-
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → TochB. ñakta-
TochA. ñkät-
(m.) ‘Deus’ (f.) ‘Dea’
(Poucha 113)
(TochA. ñkät)
1. PIE *nèkito
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *nèḱto
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. nèḱto
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nèḱta
3. nèḱta
PIE *è → i̯ à
 Change of *è into i̯à
Rè›i̯à → *ni̯àḱta
4. ni̯àḱta
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *ni̯àkta
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. ni̯àkta
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *ñàkta
6. ñàkta
*a → Ø
Metathesis of kta- into kät-
R=kta›=kät → *ñàkät
7. ñàkät
*a → Ø
Loss of unaccented *a
Rà›0 → TochA. ñkät
TochA. ma·ñkät-
(f.) ‘Dea Luna’
(Poucha 113)
1. PIE *Π·nèkito
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *Π·nèḱto
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. Π·nèḱto
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·nèḱta
3. Π·nèḱta
PIE *è → i̯ à
 Change of *è into i̯à
Rè›i̯à → *Π·ni̯àḱta
4. Π·ni̯àḱta
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *Π·ni̯àkta
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. Π·ni̯àkta
*ni̯ → ñ
Palatalization of *n before i̯
Rni̯›ñ → *Π·ñàkta
6. Π·ñàkta
*a → Ø
Metathesis of kta- into kät-
R=kta›=kät → *Π·ñàkät
7. Π·ñàkät
*a → Ø
Loss of unaccented *a
Rà›0 → TochA. Π·ñkät
Gr. νέκτ.αρ-
(n.) ‘Göttertränk’
(Gr. νέκταρ, νέκταρος)
1. PIE *nékit.hɑer-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *nékit.hɑar-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. nékit.hɑar-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nékit.har-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nékit.har-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *néḱt.har-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. néḱt.har-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *néḱt.ar-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. néḱt.ar-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nékt.ar-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. nékt.ar-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νέκτ.αρ-
Gr. νεκτ.άρεο-
(a.) ‘aus N., wie N. duftend’
(Gr. νεκτάρεος)
1. PIE *nekit.hɑérei̯o-
PIE *ɑé → ɑá
Møller's rule for PIE *aé
Rɑé›ɑá → *nekit.hɑárei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. nekit.hɑárei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nekit.hárei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nekit.hárei̯o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *neḱt.hárei̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. neḱt.hárei̯o-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *neḱt.árei̯o-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. neḱt.árei̯o-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nekt.árei̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. nekt.árei̯o-
*Vi̯V → VhV
Change of *i̯ into h between vowels
RVi̯V›VV → *nekt.áreo-
7. nekt.áreo-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νεκτ.άρεο-
Gr. νεκτ.άριο-
(n.) ‘Pflanzenname: ἑλένιον’
(Gr. νεκτάριον)
1. PIE *nekit.hɑérii̯o-
PIE *ɑé → ɑá
Møller's rule for PIE *aé
Rɑé›ɑá → *nekit.hɑárii̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. nekit.hɑárii̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nekit.hárii̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nekit.hárii̯o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *neḱt.hárii̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. neḱt.hárii̯o-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *neḱt.árii̯o-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. neḱt.árii̯o-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nekt.árii̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. nekt.árii̯o-
*Vi̯V → VhV
Change of *i̯ into h between vowels
RVi̯V›VV → *nekt.ário-
7. nekt.ário-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νεκτ.άριο-


PIE √nki- √noki- √neki- (sb.) ‘Untergang’
(IEW 762)
(LIV2:451-2; Pyysalo: Hitt. + IE)
√neki-
Lat. nec-
(f.) ‘gewaltsamer Tod, Mord’
(Lat. nex, necis)
1. PIE *neki-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *neḱ-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. neḱ-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nek-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. nek-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → Lat. nec-
Gr. νέκ-
(m.) ‘corpse’
(GEW 2:299-300)
(Hes. νέκες· νεκροί [plN])
1. PIE *néki-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *néḱ-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. néḱ-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nék-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. nék-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νέκ-
OInd. naś-
(f.) ‘Verderben’ (AiGr. 2/2:14)
(KEWA 2:146)
(Gaṇ. naś-)
1. PIE *neki-
PIE *ki/i̯ → ć
1st palatalization of *ki/i̯
RkI›ć → *neć-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. neć-
*ć → ś
From Satem *ć to ś
R曜 → *neś-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. neś-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → OInd. naś-
OInd. jīva·naś-
(a.) ‘Opfer, wobei lebende Wesen getötet werden’
(KEWA 2:146)
(Pāṇ. jīva·naś-)
1. PIE *Π·neki-
PIE *ki/i̯ → ć
1st palatalization of *ki/i̯
RkI›ć → *Π·neć-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. Π·neć-
*ć → ś
From Satem *ć to ś
R曜 → *Π·neś-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. Π·neś-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → OInd. Π·naś-
Gr. νεκ·άδ-
(f.) ‘Leichenhaufe’
(GEW 2:299-300)
(see δεκάδ-, νιφάδ- for the suffix)
1. PIE *neki·Σ
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *neḱ·Σ
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. neḱ·Σ
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nek·Σ
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. nek·Σ
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νεκ·Σ
OInd. vi (...) naś-
(vb.) ‘verlorengehen’
(EWA 2:29)
(Ved. vyanaśat [conj3sg])
1. PIE *Π·neki-
PIE *ki/i̯ → ć
1st palatalization of *ki/i̯
RkI›ć → *Π·neć-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. Π·neć-
*ć → ś
From Satem *ć to ś
R曜 → *Π·neś-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. Π·neś-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → OInd. Π·naś-
√nо̄ki- √nēki-
RV. nanāś-
(pf.) ‘verschwinden, sich davon machen’
(WbRV. 717-8)
(RV. nanāśa [3sg])
1. PIE *nenēki-
PIE *ki/i̯ → ć
1st palatalization of *ki/i̯
RkI›ć → *nenēć-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. nenēć-
*ć → ś
From Satem *ć to ś
R曜 → *nenēś-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. nenēś-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → *nanēś-
4. nanēś-
*ē → ā
Change of *ē into ā
Rē›ā → RV. nanāś-
gAv. vi·nǝnās-
(pf.) ‘dem Untergang verfallen sein’
(AIWb. 1055-6)
(gAv. vi.nǝnāsā [3sg])
1. PIE *Π·nenēki-
PIE *ki/i̯ → ć
1st palatalization of *ki/i̯
RkI›ć → *Π·nenēć-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. Π·nenēć-
*ć → s
From Satem *ć to s
Rć›s → *Π·nenēs-
(SPIE §4.8.1.9)
3. Π·nenēs-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → *Π·nanēs-
4. Π·nanēs-
*ē → ā
Change of *ē into ā
Rē›ā → gAv. Π·nanās-
Gr. νώκ.αρ-
(n.) ‘Totenschlaf’
(GEW 2:299-300)
(Gr. νῶκαρ, νῶκαρος)
1. PIE *nṓki.hɑer-
PIE *ɑe → ɑa
Møller's rule for PIE *ɑe
Rɑe›ɑa → *nṓki.hɑar-
(SPIE §2.2.5.3)
2. nṓki.hɑar-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nṓki.har-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nṓki.har-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *nṓḱ.har-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. nṓḱ.har-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nṓḱ.ar-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. nṓḱ.ar-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nṓk.ar-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
6. nṓk.ar-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νώκ.αρ-
√nokii- √nekii-
(SPIE 123)
Hitt. nakeiu̯-
(GNc.) ‘Art Unterweltsgottheit’
(HEG N:261-2)
1. PIE *noki̯eiu̯-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *noḱeiu̯-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. noḱeiu̯-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *naḱeiu̯-
3. naḱeiu̯-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → Hitt. nakeiu̯-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
Lat. nocīuo-
(a.) ‘schädlich’
(WH. 2:153)
1. PIE *noki̯eiu̯o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *noḱeiu̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. noḱeiu̯o-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *nokeiu̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. nokeiu̯o-
*ei → ī
Monophthongization of *ei into ī
Rei›ī → *nokīu̯o-
4. nokīu̯o-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → *nocīu̯o-
5. nocīu̯o-
*u̯ → u
Orthographic change of *u̯ into u
Ru̯›u → Lat. nocīuo-
Lat. inter·necīuo-
(a.) ‘mörderisch, tödlich’
(WH. 2:153)
1. PIE *Π·neki̯eiu̯o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *Π·neḱeiu̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. Π·neḱeiu̯o-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *Π·nekeiu̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. Π·nekeiu̯o-
*ei → ī
Monophthongization of *ei into ī
Rei›ī → *Π·nekīu̯o-
4. Π·nekīu̯o-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → *Π·necīu̯o-
5. Π·necīu̯o-
*u̯ → u
Orthographic change of *u̯ into u
Ru̯›u → Lat. Π·necīuo-


PIE √negiɑɦ- √nogiɑɦ- (sb.) ‘Heimat’ (vb.) ‘heimkehren, gerettet werden, genesen’
(IEW 776-7)
(Pyysalo: Anat. + IE)
√nogiɑɦo-
(Pyysalo)
Pal. pa·naga-
(vb.) ‘zurückkommen(d)?’
(HHand. 118)
(Pal. pa-na-a-ga-an-zi [3pl] or [pt.?], see BPal. 7, DPal. 66)
1. PIE *po·nogi̯ɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *po·nogi̯ɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. po·nogi̯ɦo-
PIE *gi/i̯ → g
Palatovelarization of *gi/i̯ into ǵ
RgI›ǵ → *po·noǵɦo-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. po·noǵɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *pa·naǵɦa-
4. pa·naǵɦa-
PIE *ǵ → g
Depalatalization of Centum *ǵ
Rǵ›g → *pa·nagɦa-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. pa·nagɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Pal. pa·naga-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Kpd. pa·naga-
(LÚc.) ‘‹zurückkommend?›’
(NOMS. 926)
(Kpd. pá-na-ga ‹for the semantics cf. Nestor›)
1. PIE *po·nogi̯ɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *po·nogi̯ɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. po·nogi̯ɦo-
PIE *gi/i̯ → g
Palatovelarization of *gi/i̯ into ǵ
RgI›ǵ → *po·noǵɦo-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. po·noǵɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *pa·naǵɦa-
4. pa·naǵɦa-
PIE *ǵ → g
Depalatalization of Centum *ǵ
Rǵ›g → *pa·nagɦa-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. pa·nagɦa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Kpd. pa·naga-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√nogiɑhiɑh-
(OCS. √nez- √noz- thus not a Germanic loan)
OCS. go·nozi-
(vb.) ‘retten’
(Sadnik √239)
(REW 1:292)
1. PIE *gɑɦo·nogi̯ɑɦiɑ́h-
PIE *iɑ́ → ií
Assimilation of *i and *ɑ́
Riɑ́›ií → *gɑɦo·nogi̯ɑɦiíh-
(SPIE §3.2.6)
2. gɑɦo·nogi̯ɑɦiíh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦo·nogi̯ɦiíh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. gɦo·nogi̯ɦiíh-
PIE *gi/i̯ → j́
1st palatalization of *gi/i̯
RgI›j́ → *gɦo·noj́ɦiíh-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. gɦo·noj́ɦiíh-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *gɦa·naj́ɦiíh-
5. gɦa·naj́ɦiíh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *gɦa·naj́ɦií-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
6. gɦa·naj́ɦií-
*ií → ī́
Contraction of i and í
Rií›ī́ → *gɦa·naj́ɦī́-
7. gɦa·naj́ɦī́-
*j́ → z
From Satem *j́ to z
Rj́›z → *gɦa·nazɦī́-
(SPIE §4.8.1.9)
8. gɦa·nazɦī́-
*gɦ → g
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *gɦ
Rgɦ›g → *ga·nazɦī́-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
9. ga·nazɦī́-
*zɦ → z
 Loss of 'ɦ in media aspirata *zɦ
Rzɦ›z → *ga·nazī́-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
10. ga·nazī́-
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *go·nozī́-
11. go·nozī́-
*ī́ → i
Orthographic change of *ī́ into i
Rī́›í → *go·nozí-
12. go·nozí-
*í → i
Orthographic absence of accent
Rí›i → OCS. go·nozi-
OCS. go·naža-
(vb.) ‘erlösen, befreien’
(Sadnik √239)
1. PIE *gɑɦo·nōgi̯ɑɦi̯ēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *gɑɦo·nōgi̯ɑɦi̯āɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. gɑɦo·nōgi̯ɑɦi̯āɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦo·nōgi̯ɦi̯āh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. gɦo·nōgi̯ɦi̯āh-
PIE *gi/i̯ → j́
1st palatalization of *gi/i̯
RgI›j́ → *gɦo·nōj́ɦi̯āh-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
4. gɦo·nōj́ɦi̯āh-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *gɦa·nōj́ɦi̯āh-
5. gɦa·nōj́ɦi̯āh-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *gɦa·nāj́ɦi̯āh-
6. gɦa·nāj́ɦi̯āh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *gɦa·nāj́ɦi̯ā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
7. gɦa·nāj́ɦi̯ā-
*j́ → z
From Satem *j́ to z
Rj́›z → *gɦa·nāzɦi̯ā-
(SPIE §4.8.1.9)
8. gɦa·nāzɦi̯ā-
*gɦ → g
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *gɦ
Rgɦ›g → *ga·nāzɦi̯ā-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
9. ga·nāzɦi̯ā-
*zɦ → z
 Loss of 'ɦ in media aspirata *zɦ
Rzɦ›z → *ga·nāzi̯ā-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
10. ga·nāzi̯ā-
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *go·nāzi̯ā-
11. go·nāzi̯ā-
* zi̯ → ž
Change of zi̯ into ž
Rzi̯›ž → *go·nāžā-
12. go·nāžā-
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → OCS. go·naža-
√negiɑh-
OCS. go·neznǫ-
(vb.) ‘genesen, entgehen, sich retten, verborgen sein’
(Sadnik √239)
1. PIE *gɑɦo·negi̯ɑɦnun
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦo·negi̯ɦnun
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. gɦo·negi̯ɦnun
PIE *gi/i̯ → j́
1st palatalization of *gi/i̯
RgI›j́ → *gɦo·nej́ɦnun
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. gɦo·nej́ɦnun
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *gɦa·nej́ɦnun
4. gɦa·nej́ɦnun
*j́ → z
From Satem *j́ to z
Rj́›z → *gɦa·nezɦnun
(SPIE §4.8.1.9)
5. gɦa·nezɦnun
*gɦ → g
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *gɦ
Rgɦ›g → *ga·nezɦnun
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
6. ga·nezɦnun
*zɦ → z
 Loss of 'ɦ in media aspirata *zɦ
Rzɦ›z → *ga·neznun
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
7. ga·neznun
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *go·neznun
8. go·neznun
*-un → -ǫ
Emergence of nasal vowel ǫ
Run›ǫ → OCS. go·neznǫ


PIE √nku- √noku- √neku- (sb.) ‘Schaden, Beschädigung, Verlust, Schuld, Sündenbock’ (vb.) ‘zu Grunde gehen’
(IEW 762)
(Laroche 1986:137-140: Lat.; Pyysalo: LAv.)
√noku-
Hitt. naku-
(c.) ‘Substitut, Stellvertreter, ritueller Sündenbock’
(HEG N:262-4)
(HIL. 686f., CHD N:374f.)
1. PIE *noku-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. naku-
√nokus-
(Laroche 1986:137-140)
(Not *noḱ- but *noku̯-, see LAv. below)
Hitt. nakuš-
(n.) ‘Verlust, Schaden, Beschädigung, Schuld’
(HEG N:262-4)
(Hitt. na-ak-ku-uš)
1. PIE *nokus-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nakus-
2. nakus-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nakuš-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Lat. noxā-
(f.) ‘Schaden; Strafe’
(WH. 2:154)
1. PIE *nokusēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nokusāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nokusāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nokusāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nokusāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nokusā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nokusā-
* ku/u̯ → q
Emergence of labiovelar q
RkU›q → *noqsā-
5. noqsā-
*qs → ks
Delabialization of *q before s
Rqs›ks → *noksā-
6. noksā-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → *nocsā-
7. nocsā-
*cs → x
Orthographic change of cs into x
Rks›x → Lat. noxā-
CLu. nakušaḫid-
(n.) ‘Funktion des Sündenträgers’
(DLL. 73)
1. PIE *nokusoɦɑid-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nokusoɦid-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nokusoɦid-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nakusaɦid-
3. nakusaɦid-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nakušaɦid-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nakušaɦid-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. nakušaḫid-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
CLu. nakuši-
(c.) ‘Substitut, Stellvertreter, Sündenbock’
(HEG N:264)
1. PIE *nokusi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nakusi-
2. nakusi-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → CLu. nakuši-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nakušei̯a-
(vb.) ‘Schuld übernehmen?’
(HEG N:266)
1. PIE *nokusei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nakusei̯a-
2. nakusei̯a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nakušei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
CLu. nakušau-
(vb.) ‘ein Substitut stellen’
(HHand. 110)
(CLu. na-ak-ku-uš-ša-a-u-un-ta [3pl])
1. PIE *nokusou-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nakusau-
2. nakusau-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → CLu. nakušau-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√nekus-
Lat. nexo-
(n.) ‘Schuldhörigkeit’
(Lat. nexum)
1. PIE *nekuso-
* ku/u̯ → q
Emergence of labiovelar q
RkU›q → *neqso-
2. neqso-
*qs → ks
Delabialization of *q before s
Rqs›ks → *nekso-
3. nekso-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → *necso-
4. necso-
*cs → x
Orthographic change of cs into x
Rks›x → Lat. nexo-
Lat. nexo-
(m.) ‘der in Schuldhaft Befindliche’
(Lat. nexus)
1. PIE *nekuso-
* ku/u̯ → q
Emergence of labiovelar q
RkU›q → *neqso-
2. neqso-
*qs → ks
Delabialization of *q before s
Rqs›ks → *nekso-
3. nekso-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → *necso-
4. necso-
*cs → x
Orthographic change of cs into x
Rks›x → Lat. nexo-
Lat. nexū-
(m.) ‘Verschlingung, Schuldhörigkeit’
(WH. 2:155)
1. PIE *nekusou-
* ku/u̯ → q
Emergence of labiovelar q
RkU›q → *neqsou-
2. neqsou-
*qs → ks
Delabialization of *q before s
Rqs›ks → *neksou-
3. neksou-
*ou → ū
Monophthongization of *ou into ū
Rou›ū → *neksū-
4. neksū-
*k → c
Orthographic change of *k into c
Rk›c → *necsū-
5. necsū-
*cs → x
Orthographic change of cs into x
Rks›x → Lat. nexū-
√nēkus- or √nōkus-
(Pyysalo)
LAv. a·nāxšta-
(a.) ‘der nicht zu Grunde geht’
(AIWb. 122-3)
(LAv. mąϑrō spǝntō anāxštō anādruxtō)
1. PIE *Π·nēkusto-
PIE *us → uš
Ruki-rule for *us
RrUkiIr → *Π·nēkušto-
(SPIE §4.9.2.2)
2. Π·nēkušto-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·nēkušta-
3. Π·nēkušta-
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → *Π·nēkšta-
(SPIE §4.8.3)
4. Π·nēkšta-
*ē → ā
Change of *ē into ā
Rē›ā → *Π·nākšta-
5. Π·nākšta-
PIE *kš → xš
Change of *k into x before *š
Rkš›xš → LAv. Π·nāxšta-


PIE √nku- √neku- √noku- (sb.) ‘Dunkel, Abend, Nacht’ (vb.) ‘dämmern’
(IEW 762-3)
(Hrozný 1917:69)
√neku-
Hitt. neku-
(vb.1.A.M.) ‘es wird dunkel/Abend, es dämmert’
(HEG N:302-7)
(Hitt. ne-ku-uz-zi, ne-ku-zi, ne-ku-ut-ta, ne-ku-ut-t[a-a]t, HHand. 112)
√noku-
Hitt. naku·ri̯au̯ar-
(n.) ‘verspäten, sich aufhalten’
(HEG N:262)
(Hitt. me-ek-ki(-)ši na-ak-ku-ri-ia-u-ua-ar: Sum. UL4.GAL, Akd. ka-šu)
1. PIE *noku·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. naku·Σ
√nokus-
(CHD N:394-5)
Hitt. nanakuš-
(vb.1.A.) ‘dunkel werden/sein’
(HEG N:273)
(Hitt. na-na-ku-uš-[zi] [3sg])
1. PIE *nonokus-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanakus-
2. nanakus-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nanakuš-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nanakušei̯ant-
(pt.) ‘dunkel’
(HEG N:273)
(Hitt. [n]a-na-ku-uš-ši-ia-an)
1. PIE *nonokusei̯ont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nanakusei̯ant-
2. nanakusei̯ant-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nanakušei̯ant-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√nekut-
Hitt. nekut-
(sb.) ‘Abend, Nacht’
(HEG N:302-7)
(Hitt. ne-ku-uz [sgG] me-ḫur ki-ša-ri)
√nokut-
RV. nákt-
(f.) ‘Nacht’
(WbRV. 719)
(RV. ápa svásur uṣáṣas nág jihīte [RV. 7.72.1])
1. PIE *nókut-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *nákut-
2. nákut-
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → RV. nákt-
(SPIE §4.8.3)
Lith. nakt-
(f.) ‘Nacht’
(LiEtWb. 481)
(Lith. naktų̃ [plG])
1. PIE *nokut-
*KU → K
Loss of labial after velar
RKU›K → *nokt-
(SPIE §4.8.3)
2. nokt-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Lith. nakt-
Lat. noct-
(f.) ‘Nacht’ (GEW 2:327f., 3:157f.)
(WH. 2:181-3)
(Lat. nox, noctis)
1. PIE *nokut-
* ku/u̯ → q
Emergence of labiovelar q
RkU›q → *noqt-
2. noqt-
q → qu
Orthographic change of q to qu
Rq›qu → Lat. noqut-


PIE √nbɑh- √nobɑɦ- √nebɑɦ- (vb.) ‘zerspalten’ (sb.) ‘Axt’
(IEW 758, LIV2:448)
(Pyysalo: Hitt. + HLu. + IE)
√nebɑɦ-
(EWA 2:12-13, KEWA 2:133-4)
RV. nábh-
(f.) ‘Zerspalter, Zerbrecher: Sāy.: hiṃsā’
(WbRV. 708)
1. PIE *nébɑɦ-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nébɦ-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nébɦ-
*é → á
Change of *é into á
Ré›á → *nábɦ-
3. nábɦ-
ɦ → h
Change of ɦ into h
Rɦ›h → RV. nábh-
RV. nábha-
(pr.) ‘bersten, zerspringen, enzweigehen’
(WbRV. 708)
1. PIE *nébɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nébɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nébɦo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nébɦa-
3. nébɦa-
*é → á
Change of *é into á
Ré›á → *nábɦa-
4. nábɦa-
ɦ → h
Change of ɦ into h
Rɦ›h → RV. nábha-
√nobɑɦ-
Hitt. nab·[...
(NA4.) ‘‹Hitt. na-ap[... = HLu. napari-?›’
(HEG N:275)
(Hitt. [2 MÁ.URU.U]RU5 Ga-aš-ga ŠÀ.BA 99 GIG.GAG.TAG 2 a-šu-ša-aš KÙ.BABBAR 1 NA4na-ap[...])
1. PIE *nobɑɦ·Σ
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nobɦ·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nobɦ·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nabɦ·Σ
3. nabɦ·Σ
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nab·Σ
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
HLu. nabari-
(ASCIAsb.) ‘axe’
(CHLu. 2.6.3)
(HLu. ASCIA(-)na-pa-[ri]+i)
1. PIE *nobɑɦori-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nobɦori-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nobɦori-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nabɦari-
3. nabɦari-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → HLu. nabari-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√nbɑɦ-
OInd. nambhaya-
(cs.A.) ‘bersten lassen’
(LIV2:448)
(OInd. nambhayati)
1. PIE *nombɑɦei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nombɦei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nombɦei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nambɦei̯a-
3. nambɦei̯a-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → *nambɦai̯a-
4. nambɦai̯a-
ɦ → h
Change of ɦ into h
Rɦ›h → *nambhai̯a-
5. nambhai̯a-
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → OInd. nambhaya-


PIE √nbɑɦ- √nebɑɦ- √nobɑɦ- (sb.) ‘Nebel, Wolke, Himmel’
(IEW 315-6)
(WP. 1:131; Hrozný 1919:72n5; Kloekhorst HIL. 129)
√nōbɑɦ-
RV. nā́bh-
(f.) ‘Quell’
(WbRV. 722)
(RV. cátasras nā́bhas níhitās avás divás, havís bharanti amŕ̥tam ghr̥taścútas; or *ē?)
1. PIE *nṓbɑɦ-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nṓbɦ-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nṓbɦ-
PIE *ṓ → ā́
Change of *ṓ into ā́
Rṓ›ā́ → *nā́bɦ-
3. nā́bɦ-
ɦ → h
Change of ɦ into h
Rɦ›h → RV. nā́bh-
√nobɑɦ-
Gr. ξυν·νένοφ-
(pf.) ‘wolkig sein’
(LSJ. 1719)
(Gr. ξυννένοφε ‘es ist wolkig’)
1. PIE *Π·nénobɑɦ-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nénobɦ-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nénobɦ-
*bɦ → ph
Loss of voice of media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›ph → *Π·nénoph-
3. Π·nénoph-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. Π·νένοφ-
√nebɑɦo-
Gr. συν·νέφο-
(pr.) ‘sich umziehen’
(GEW 2:309)
(Gr. συννέφει ‘es zieht sich um’)
1. PIE *Π·nébɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nébɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nébɦo-
*bɦ → ph
Loss of voice of media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›ph → *Π·népho-
3. Π·népho-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. Π·νέφο-
Gr. ἐπι·νέφο-
(pr.) ‘es wird bewölkt’
(GEW 2:309)
(Gr. ἐπινέφει)
1. PIE *Π·nébɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nébɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nébɦo-
*bɦ → ph
Loss of voice of media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›ph → *Π·népho-
3. Π·népho-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. Π·νέφο-
√nebbɑɦel-
Gr. νεφέλη-
(f.) ‘Wolke, Gewölk’
(GEW 2:309)
(Gr. νεφέλη)
1. PIE *nebbɑɦélēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nebbɑɦélāɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nebbɑɦélāɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebbɦélāh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nebbɦélāh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nebbɦélā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nebbɦélā-
*bɦ → ph
Loss of voice of media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›ph → *nebphélā-
5. nebphélā-
ā –> ē (Att)
Attican change of ā –› ē
Rā›ēAtt → *nebphélē-
6. nebphélē-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νεβφέλη-
√nebɑɦi-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. nebi̯a-
(c./n.?) ‘Sum. AN: Himmel’
(HEG N:310-5)
(Hitt. ne-pi-aš [sgG], HHand. 112)
1. PIE *nebɑɦi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦi̯a-
3. nebɦi̯a-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nebi̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
RV. abhi·nabhyá-
(n.) ‘Wolkennähe’
(WbRV. 84)
1. PIE *Π·nebɑɦi̯ó-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·nebɦi̯ó-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·nebɦi̯ó-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *Π·nebɦi̯á-
3. Π·nebɦi̯á-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → *Π·nabɦi̯á-
4. Π·nabɦi̯á-
ɦ → h
Change of ɦ into h
Rɦ›h → *Π·nabhi̯á-
5. Π·nabhi̯á-
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → RV. Π·nabhyá-
OInd. nabhya-
(a.) ‘cloudy, moist, foggy’
(MonWil. 528)
1. PIE *nebɑɦi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦi̯a-
3. nebɦi̯a-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → *nabɦi̯a-
4. nabɦi̯a-
ɦ → h
Change of ɦ into h
Rɦ›h → *nabhi̯a-
5. nabhi̯a-
i̯ → y
Orthographic change of i̯ into y
Ri̯›y → OInd. nabhya-
√nebɑɦis-
(CHD N:448f.)
Hitt. nebiš-
(n.) ‘Himmel: Sum. AN: Akd. šamū’
(HEG N:310-5)
(Hitt. ne-e-pí-iš [N], ne-pí-iš [L], ne-e-pí-ša [Dir])
1. PIE *nebɑɦis-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦis-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦis-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *nebis-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
3. nebis-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nebiš-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nebiša-
(c.) ‘Himmel’
(HEG N:310-5)
(Hitt. ne-pí-ša-an [sgA])
1. PIE *nebɑɦiso-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦiso-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦiso-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦisa-
3. nebɦisa-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *nebisa-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nebisa-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nebiša-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nebišan-
(n.) ‘Himmel’
(HEG N:310-1)
(Hitt. ne-pí-ša-an [sgG], ne-pí-ša-an-na-az [sgAbl])
1. PIE *nebɑɦison-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦison-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦison-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦisan-
3. nebɦisan-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *nebisan-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nebisan-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nebišan-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nebišant-
(c.) ‘Himmel (als handelndes Subjekt)’ (HHand. 112)
(HEG N:310-)
(Hitt. ne-pí-ša-an-za [sgN])
1. PIE *nebɑɦisont-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦisont-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦisont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦisant-
3. nebɦisant-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *nebisant-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nebisant-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nebišant-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√nebɑɦos-
(Kloekhorst HIL. 129)
Hitt. nebaš-
(d.) ‘-(?)-’
(HIL. 698)
(in OAss. ni-pa-aš, HIL. 129, in OAss. Kültepe-texts with dAna-)
1. PIE *nebɑɦos-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦos-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦos-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦas-
3. nebɦas-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *nebas-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nebas-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nebaš-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
RV. nábhas-
(n.) ‘Nass, Feuchtigkeit, Wasser, Wolke, Nebel’
(WbRV. 709)
(RV. nábhas)
1. PIE *nébɑɦos-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nébɦos-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nébɦos-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nébɦas-
3. nébɦas-
*é → á
Change of *é into á
Ré›á → *nábɦas-
4. nábɦas-
ɦ → h
Change of ɦ into h
Rɦ›h → RV. nábhas-
gAv. nabah-
(n.pl) ‘Luftraum, Himmel’
(AIWb. 1040)
(gAv. nabåsčā [plA] [Y.44.4.])
1. PIE *nebɑɦos-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦos-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦos-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦas-
3. nebɦas-
*s → h
Change *s into h
Rs›hRestr → *nebɦah-
4. nebɦah-
*bɦ → b
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›b → *nebah-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
5. nebah-
*e → a
Change of *e into a
Re›a → gAv. nabah-
Gr. νέφοσ-
(n.) ‘Wolke, Nebel’
(GEW 2:313)
(Gr. νέφος, νέφεος, νέφους)
1. PIE *nébɑɦos-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nébɦos-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nébɦos-
*bɦ → ph
Loss of voice of media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›ph → *néphos-
3. néphos-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νέφοσ-
OCS. nebo-
(n.) ‘Himmel’
(Sadnik √570)
(OCS. nebo [sgNA])
1. PIE *nebɑɦos
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nebɦos
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nebɦos
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nebɦas
3. nebɦas
*bɦ → b
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *bɦ
Rbɦ›b → *nebas
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
4. nebas
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *nebos
5. nebos
*-os → -o
Loss of *s in -os (root-final)
Ros=›o= → OCS. nebo


PIE √nr- √nor- √ner- (sb.) ‘Lebenskraft’ (a.) ‘stark, kräftlich’ (vb.) ‘machen’
(IEW 765)
(Kretschmer 1928:79; not to Hitt. inara-)
√nori-
CLu. anari-
(c.) ‘Rüstigkeit, Lebenskraft’
(DLL. 26-27)
(HEG A:28)
1. PIE *onori-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. anari-
CLu. anari-
(d.) ‘Rustigkeit, Lebenskraft’
(OHP. 1:30f.)
1. PIE *onori-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. anari-
Gr. νωρέο-
(vb.) ‘be in action, operate, effect, execute, etc.’
(GEW 2:331)
(in Hes. νωρει̃ · ἐνεργει̃)
1. PIE *nōréi̯o-
*Vi̯V → VhV
Change of *i̯ into h between vowels
RVi̯V›VV → *nōréo-
2. nōréo-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νωρέο-
RV. nária-
(a.) ‘stark, kräftlich’
(WbRV. 713-4)
(RV. nárias [N], náriam [A], KEWA 2:140)
1. PIE *nóriHo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nóriHa-
2. nóriHa-
PIE *ó → á
Change of *ó into á
Ró›á → *náriHa-
3. náriHa-
PIE *H → .
Metric hiatus from PIE *h/ɦ
RH›' → RV. nári.a-
√noru-
CLu. anaru-
(vb.) ‘stark sein’
(HEG A:28, 359ff.)
(in CLu. anaruminzi [pt.plN])
1. PIE *onoru-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. anaru-
RV. nr̥vát
(adv.) ‘kräftig, tuchtig, reichlich’
(WbRV. 753)
1. PIE *nr̥u̯ét-
*é → á
Change of *é into á
Ré›á → *nr̥u̯át-
2. nr̥u̯át-
PIE *u̯ → v
Affricativization of PIE *u̯ into v
Ru̯›v → RV. nr̥vát-
√norum-
CLu. anaruma·ḫid-
(n.) ‘Kraft, Stärke: power, might’
(HHand2 16)
1. PIE *onorumo·ɦɑid-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onorumo·ɦid-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. onorumo·ɦid-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anaruma·ɦid-
3. anaruma·ɦid-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. anaruma·ḫid-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
CLu. anaruma·ḫidaši-
(a.) ‘rüstig, stark, kräftig’
(HHand2 16)
1. PIE *onorumo·ɦɑidosi-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *onorumo·ɦidosi-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. onorumo·ɦidosi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *anaruma·ɦidasi-
3. anaruma·ɦidasi-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *anaruma·ɦidaši-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. anaruma·ɦidaši-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → CLu. anaruma·ḫidaši-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
CLu. anarumi-
(pt.a.) ‘stark, kräftlich’
(HHand2 17)
(CLu. anaruminzi [plN])
1. PIE *onorumi-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. anarumi-


PIE √ns- √ōns- √ēns- (vb.) ‘abwischen’ (cf. Hitt. u̯arš- ‘reap, harvest, wipe’) (sb.) ‘Schwert’
(IEW 771)
(SPIE 305: Hitt.; for the semantics, cf. OIcl. ver- ‘Schwert’)
√ōns-
(HED 1:74)
(SHV 436-7, HIL. 219-20, HEG A:33)
Hitt. ānš-
(vb.) ‘abwischen’
(HEG A:33)
(Hitt. a-an-ši [3sg], a-an-aš-ta-at [3sg])
1. PIE *ōns-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *āns-
2. āns-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ānš-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ānšant-
(pt.) ‘verwischt, abgewischt, glatt’
(HHand. 17)
(Hitt. a-an-ša-an-t-, an-ša-an-t-)
1. PIE *ōnsont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ōnsant-
2. ōnsant-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ānsant-
3. ānsant-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ānšant-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ānša·šibi-
(c.) ‘Leichnam’
(HEG A:33)
(‹suffix unclear›)
1. PIE *ōnso·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ōnsa·Σ
2. ōnsa·Σ
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ānsa·Σ
3. ānsa·Σ
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ānša·Σ
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√ēnsi-
(Pyysalo)
Lat. ēnsi-
(m.) ‘Schwert’
(Lat. ēnsis [sgN], ēnsis [sgG])
1. PIE *ēnsi-
*ēRC → eRC
Osthoff’s Law for *ēRC
RēRC›eRC → *ensi-
(SPIE §2.5.8)
2. ensi-
*ens → ēns
Lengthening of ens into ēns
Rens›ēns → Lat. ēnsi-
Lat. ēnsi·culo-
(m.dim.) ‘Schwertlein’
(Lat. ēnsiculus [sgN])
1. PIE *ēnsi·Σ
*ēRC → eRC
Osthoff’s Law for *ēRC
RēRC›eRC → *ensi·Σ
(SPIE §2.5.8)
2. ensi·Σ
*ens → ēns
Lengthening of ens into ēns
Rens›ēns → Lat. ēnsi·Σ
ōnsi-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. ānšei̯a-
(vb.) ‘abwischen’
(EHS 507)
(Hitt. a-an-ši-an-zi, a-a[n]-ši-ia-an-zi)
1. PIE *ōnsei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ōnsei̯a-
2. ōnsei̯a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ānsei̯a-
3. ānsei̯a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ānšei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ānšige/a-
(vb.iter.) ‘(ab)wischen’
(HHand. 16)
(Hitt. a-an-ši-ke/a-)
1. PIE *ōnsigɑɦe/o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *ōnsigɦe/o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. ōnsigɦe/o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ōnsigɦe/a-
3. ōnsigɦe/a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ānsigɦe/a-
4. ānsigɦe/a-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *ānsige/a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. ānsige/a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ānšige/a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. ānši·ške/a-
(vb.iter.) ‘(ab)wischen’
(HHand. 16)
1. PIE *ōnsi·ski̯e/o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *ōnsi·sḱe/o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. ōnsi·sḱe/o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ōnsi·sḱe/a-
3. ōnsi·sḱe/a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ānsi·sḱe/a-
4. ānsi·sḱe/a-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *ānsi·ske/a-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. ānsi·ske/a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ānši·ške/a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√ōnski-
(Pyysalo)
OInd. āñcha-
(vb.A.) ‘zurechtzerren’
(AiGr. 1:15)
(OInd. āñchati [3sg])
1. PIE *ōnski̯o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → ć
1st palatalization of *ki/i̯
RkI›ć → *ōnsćo-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. ōnsćo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ōnsća-
3. ōnsća-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ānsća-
4. ānsća-
*ć → ś
From Satem *ć to ś
R曜 → *ānsśa-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. ānsśa-
*sś → ch
Change of sś to ch
Rsś›ch → *āncha-
6. āncha-
*nch → ñch
Palatalization of nasal
Rnch›ñch → OInd. āñcha-
Hitt. ānške/a-
(vb.iter.) ‘(ab)wischen’
(HHand. 16)
(Hitt. a-an-aš-ke/a-)
1. PIE *ōnski̯e/o-
PIE *ki/i̯ → k
Palatovelarization of *ki/i̯ into *ḱ
RkI›ḱ → *ōnsḱe/o-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
2. ōnsḱe/o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ōnsḱe/a-
3. ōnsḱe/a-
PIE *ō → ā
Change of *ō into ā
Rō›ā → *ānsḱe/a-
4. ānsḱe/a-
PIE *ḱ → k
Depalatalization of Centum *ḱ
Rḱ›k → *ānske/a-
(SPIE §4.8.4)
5. ānske/a-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ānške/a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)


PIE √ns- √nes- √nos- (sb.) ‘URUneša- = Heimat’ (vb.) ‘heimkehren, gerettet werden, genesen usw.’
(IEW 766-7)
(Pyysalo: Hitt.)
√nes-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. ga·neš-
(URUn.) ‘URUneša- ‹i.e. Heimat: Homeland?›’
(OGH. 169-70)
(Hitt. ka-ni-eš, ka-ni-iš)
1. PIE *gɑɦo·nes-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦo·nes-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. gɦo·nes-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *gɦa·nes-
3. gɦa·nes-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *ga·nes-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. ga·nes-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. ga·neš-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Gr. νέο-
(pr.M.) ‘(glücklich) gelangen, zurück-, heimkehren’
(Gr. νέο-)
1. PIE *néso-
*s → h
Change *s into h
Rs›hRestr2 → *ného-
2. ného-
*h → Ø
Loss of segmental h
R-Th›0 → *néo-
3. néo-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νέο-
Hitt. neša-
(URU.) ‘URUganeš-’ (OGHErg. 62-3)
(HEG N:315-9)
(Hitt. ne-ša-, ne-e-ša-)
1. PIE *neso-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nesa-
2. nesa-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. neša-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Goth. ga·nisa-
(vb.) ‘gerettet werden, genesen’
(GoEtD. G52)
1. PIE *gɑɦo·neso-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦo·neso-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. gɦo·neso-
*gɦ → g
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *gɦ
Rgɦ›g → *go·neso-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. go·neso-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ga·nesa-
4. ga·nesa-
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → Goth. ga·nisa-
Hitt. nešili
(URUadv.) ‘hethitisch’
(HEG N:318)
(Hitt. ni-ši-li)
1. PIE *nesili
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nešili
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Goth. ga·nisti-
(f.) ‘Genesung, Heil: σωτηρία’
(GoEtD. G52)
(Goth. ganists)
1. PIE *gɑɦo·nesti-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦo·nesti-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. gɦo·nesti-
*gɦ → g
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *gɦ
Rgɦ›g → *go·nesti-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. go·nesti-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ga·nesti-
4. ga·nesti-
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → Goth. ga·nisti-
Gr. νέστωρ-
(PNm.) “der (glücklich wohin) gelangt”
(GEW 2:305)
1. PIE *néstōr
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νέστωρ
√nos-
(Pyysalo)
Goth. ga·nasja-
(vb.) ‘ἰᾶσθαι, σῶσαι, διασώσειν’
(GoEtD. N7)
1. PIE *gɑɦo·nosi̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *gɦo·nosi̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. gɦo·nosi̯o-
*gɦ → g
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *gɦ
Rgɦ›g → *go·nosi̯o-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. go·nosi̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *ga·nasi̯a-
4. ga·nasi̯a-
PIE *i̯ → j
Orthographic change of *i̯ into j
Ri̯›j → Goth. ga·nasja-
Hitt. našili
(adv.) ‘hethitisch’
(HEG N:318)
(Hitt. na-a-ši-li)
1. PIE *nosili
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nasili
2. nasili
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. našili
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Gr. νόστο-
(m.) ‘Rück-, Heimkehr, Fahrt, Ertrag’
(GEW 2:305)
1. PIE *nósto-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νόστο-
√ns-
Gr. νί̄σο-
(pr.) ‘fahren, gehen, kommen’
(Gr. νίσομαι, νίσσομαι)
1. PIE *nínsso-
*ínss → ī́ss
Loss of nasal with lengthening
Rinss›īss → *nī́sso-
2. nī́sso-
*ss → s
Degemination of *ss
Rss›s → *nī́so-
3. nī́so-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νί̄σο-
Gr. νί̄σα-
(ao.) ‘fahren, gehen, kommen’
(Gr. νίσασθαι, νίσσασθαι)
1. PIE *nínsseɑh-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *nínssaɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. nínssaɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nínssah-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nínssah-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nínssa-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nínssa-
*ínss → ī́ss
Loss of nasal with lengthening
Rinss›īss → *nī́ssa-
5. nī́ssa-
*ss → s
Degemination of *ss
Rss›s → *nī́sa-
6. nī́sa-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. νί̄σα-


PIE √nu- √neu- √nou- (a.) ‘neu, frisch, jung’ (sb.) ‘Geburt’ (num.) ‘neun’
(IEW 769)
(Forrer apud Feist 1924:130)
√neuo-
(CHD N:455ff.)
Hitt. neu̯a-
(a.) ‘GIBIL: neu, frisch’
(HEG N:320ff.)
(Hitt. ne-e-ua-an, ne-e-u-[it], ni-u-i-i[t], HHand. 112)
1. PIE *neu̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. neu̯a-
ODor. νεϝό·στατο-
(a.sup.) ‘newest’
(HEG N:307)
(Cypr. νεϝόστατος)
1. PIE *neu̯ó·Σ
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → ODor. νεϝό·Σ
RV. náva-
(a.) ‘neu, frisch, jung’
(EWA 2:25)
(WbRV. 714, návas; or *nou̯o-?)
1. PIE *néu̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *néu̯a-
2. néu̯a-
*é → á
Change of *é into á
Ré›á → *náu̯a-
3. náu̯a-
PIE *u̯ → v
Affricativization of PIE *u̯ into v
Ru̯›v → RV. náva-
Hitt. neu̯āḫ-
(vb.1.) ‘erneuern’
(HHand. 112)
(Hitt. ne-e-u-ua-aḫ-ḫa-an-zi, ne-ua-aḫ-ḫa-an-zi, ne-ua-aḫ-ḫu-un)
1. PIE *neu̯̯ēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *neu̯̯āɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. neu̯̯āɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *neu̯̯āh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. neu̯̯āh-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. neu̯̯āḫ-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nouo-
OLat. nouo-
(a.) ‘neu’
(WH. 2:181)
(OLat. nouos [sgN])
1. PIE *nou̯o-
*u̯ → u
Orthographic change of *u̯ into u
Ru̯›u → OLat. nouo-
OCS. novo-
(a.) ‘neu’
(Sadnik √583)
(OCS. novŭ, novo, nova)
1. PIE *nou̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nau̯a-
2. nau̯a-
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *nou̯o-
3. nou̯o-
PIE *u̯ → v
Affricativization of PIE *u̯ into v
Ru̯›v → OCS. novo-
CLu. nau̯a-
(a.) ‘neu’ (HHand. 111)
(HIL. 699)
(CLu. na-a-ú-ua-ti, na-ú-ua-ti, na-a-ú-ua-te)
1. PIE *nou̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → CLu. nau̯a-
HLu. nau̯a-
(INFANSc.) ‘great-great-grandson’
(CHLu. 4.4.1)
(HLu. (INFANS)na-wa/i-sa)
1. PIE *nou̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nau̯a-
HLu. nau̯a·nau̯a-
(INFANSc.) ‘great-great-great-grandson’
(CHLu. 4.4.1)
(HLu. (INFANS)na-wa/i-na-wa/i-sa)
1. PIE *nou̯o·nou̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nau̯a·nau̯a-
√nouēɑh-
Lat. nouā-
(pr.1.) ‘erneuen’
(WH. 2:181)
(Lat. nouāre [inf.])
1. PIE *nou̯ēɑh-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nou̯āɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nou̯āɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nou̯āh-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nou̯āh-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nou̯ā-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. nou̯ā-
*u̯ → u
Orthographic change of *u̯ into u
Ru̯›u → Lat. nouā-
TochB. nawāka-
(m.sg) ‘novice’
(DTochB. 331)
(TochB. nawākeṃ)
1. PIE *nou̯ēɑhko-
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nou̯āɑhko-
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nou̯āɑhko-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nou̯āhko-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nou̯āhko-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nau̯āhka-
4. nau̯āhka-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nau̯āka-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. nau̯āka-
*u̯ → w
Orthographic change of *u̯ into w
Ru̯›w → TochB. nawāka-
CS. novakŭ-
(m.) ‘Neuling’
(LiEtWb. 488)
1. PIE *nou̯ēɑhko
PIE *ēɑ → āɑ
Pyysalo's rule for PIE *ēɑ
Rēɑ›āɑ → *nou̯āɑhko
(SPIE §2.2.10)
2. nou̯āɑhko
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nou̯āhko
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. nou̯āhko
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nau̯āhka
4. nau̯āhka
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *nau̯āka
(SPIE §2.1.4)
5. nau̯āka
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *nou̯āko
6. nou̯āko
*-o → -u
Change of root-final o into u
R=o›=u → *nou̯āku
7. nou̯āku
PIE *u̯ → v
Affricativization of PIE *u̯ into v
Ru̯›v → *novāku
8. novāku
*ā → a
Change of *ā into a
Rā›a → *novaku
9. novaku
*u → ŭ
Orthographic change of *u into ŭ
Ru›ŭ → CS. novakŭ


PIE √nu- √neu- √nou- (vb.) ‘movere’
(IEW –)
(Pyysalo: BSl. + OAnat.)
√nou-
Lith. nav·ynà-
(f.) ‘Botschaft’
(LiEtWb. 488)
1. PIE *nou̯·Σ
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nau̯·Σ
2. nau̯·Σ
PIE *u̯ → v
Affricativization of PIE *u̯ into v
Ru̯›v → Lith. nav·Σ
√nugiɑɦ-
(Or *ǵɦ = gɑɦi vel sim.?)
OCS. sŭ·nuzĭnŭ-
(a.) ‘(zu ‘Pferd’ oder ‘Wagen’?)’
(Sadnik √914)
1. PIE *su·nougiɑɦino
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *su·nougiɦino
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. su·nougiɦino
PIE *gi/i̯ → j́
1st palatalization of *gi/i̯
RgI›j́ → *su·nouj́ɦino
(SPIE §4.8.4)
3. su·nouj́ɦino
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *su·nauj́ɦina
4. su·nauj́ɦina
*j́ → z
From Satem *j́ to z
Rj́›z → *su·nauzɦina
(SPIE §4.8.1.9)
5. su·nauzɦina
*zɦ → z
 Loss of 'ɦ in media aspirata *zɦ
Rzɦ›z → *su·nauzina
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
6. su·nauzina
*a → o
Change of *a into o
Ra›o → *su·nouzino
7. su·nouzino
*-o → -u
Change of root-final o into u
R=o›=u → *su·nouzinu
8. su·nouzinu
*ou → ū
Monophthongization of *ou into ū
Rou›ū → *su·nūzinu
9. su·nūzinu
*i → ĭ
Orthographic change of *i into ĭ
Ri›ĭ → *su·nūzĭnu
10. su·nūzĭnu
*u → ŭ
Orthographic change of *u into ŭ
Ru›ŭ → *sŭ·nūzĭnŭ
11. sŭ·nūzĭnŭ
*ū → u
Orthographic change of *ū into u
Rū›u → OCS. sŭ·nuzĭnŭ
√nun·dɑɦor-
(HEG N:347f.)
(CHD N:472f., HIL. 704-705)
Hitt. nundara-
(n.) ‘Eile, Hast’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-aš [G], nu-un-ta-ra-aš [G])
1. PIE *nundɑɦoro-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦoro-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦoro-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦara-
3. nundɦara-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nundara-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nundaraš
(adv.) ‘promptly, soon’
(HIL. 704)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-aš)
1. PIE *nundɑɦoros
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦoros
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦoros
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦaras
3. nundɦaras
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *nundaras
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nundaras
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → Hitt. nundaraš
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nundarei-
(vb.1.M.) ‘sich beeilen’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-ri-it-ta-ni [2pl])
1. PIE *nundɑɦorei-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦorei-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦorei-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦarei-
3. nundɦarei-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nundarei-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nundarei̯a-
(vb.) ‘eilen, hasten’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-ri-ia [2sg])
1. PIE *nundɑɦorei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦorei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦorei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦarei̯a-
3. nundɦarei̯a-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nundarei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nundarei̯a-
(a.) ‘eilig, schnell’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-ia-ša [sgN])
1. PIE *nundɑɦorei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦorei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦorei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦarei̯a-
3. nundɦarei̯a-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nundarei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nundarei̯ašḫa-
(EZEN4c.) ‘Beeilung, rasche Erledigung’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-ri-ia-aš-ḫa-aš)
1. PIE *nundɑɦoroei̯osɑho-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦoroei̯osho-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦoroei̯osho-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦaraei̯asha-
3. nundɦaraei̯asha-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → *nundaraei̯asha-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nundaraei̯asha-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nundaraei̯ašha-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nundaraei̯ašha-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nundaraei̯ašḫa-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
Hitt. nundarnu-
(cs.) ‘antreiben, beeilen’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-nu-ši)
1. PIE *nundɑɦornu-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦornu-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦornu-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦarnu-
3. nundɦarnu-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nundarnu-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nundarnu·mar-
(n.) ‘Antreibung’
(HIL. 704)
(Hitt. nu-un-tar-nu-um-mar)
1. PIE *nundɑɦornu·mor-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nundɦornu·mor-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nundɦornu·mor-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nundɦarnu·mar-
3. nundɦarnu·mar-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nundarnu·mar-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
√nu·tɑhor-
Hitt. nutari̯a-
(a.) ‘eilig, schnell’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-ut-ta-ri-ia-aš)
1. PIE *nutɑhorei̯o-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nuthorei̯o-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nuthorei̯o-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nutharei̯a-
3. nutharei̯a-
PIE Th → T
Absence of voiceless aspirates
RTh›T → Hitt. nutarei̯a-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nutari̯ašḫa-
(EZEN4c.) ‘Beeilung, rasche Erledigung’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-ut-tar-ia-aš-ḫa-aš)
1. PIE *nutɑhorei̯osɑho-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nuthorei̯osho-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nuthorei̯osho-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nutharei̯asha-
3. nutharei̯asha-
PIE Th → T
Absence of voiceless aspirates
RTh›T → *nutarei̯asha-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
4. nutarei̯asha-
PIE *s → š
Orthographic change of *s into š
Rs›š → *nutarei̯ašha-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
5. nutarei̯ašha-
PIE *h/ɦ → Hitt. ḫ
Orthographic change of *h/ɦ into ḫ
RH›ḫ → Hitt. nutarei̯ašḫa-
(SPIE §4.6.3)
√nu·dɑɦor-
(HEG N:347f.)
(CHD N:472f., HIL. 704-705)
Hitt. nudara-
(n.) ‘Eile, Hast’
(HHand. 114, HIL. 704)
(Hitt. nu-tar-aš [adv.])
1. PIE *nudɑɦoro-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nudɦoro-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nudɦoro-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nudɦara-
3. nudɦara-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nudara-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)
Hitt. nudarnu-
(cs.) ‘antreiben, beeilen’
(HHand. 114)
(Hitt. nu-tar-nu-ši)
1. PIE *nudɑɦornu-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nudɦornu-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nudɦornu-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *nudɦarnu-
3. nudɦarnu-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → Hitt. nudarnu-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)


PIE √nu- √nou- √neu- (vb.A.) ‘machen’ (vb.P.) ‘gemacht werden, geschehen’
(IEW –)
(Kloekhorst HIL. 286; Pyysalo)
√enu-
(HIL. 286)
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. enu-
(vb.) ‘‹≈ make, prepare?, cf. context →›’
(HIL. 286)
(Hitt. nu tap-pí-in e-nu-z[i (doctor) nu-ká]n UZUI-ŠA-RI=ŠU an-da zi-ik-ke-ez-zi)
Hitt. enu̯ant-
(pt.) ‘‹≈ prepared?, cf. context →›’
(HHand. 31)
(Hitt. ŠA.BA 1EN e-nu-ua-an-da[(-)...]
1. PIE *enu̯ont-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. enu̯ant-
√nu-
Hitt. ·nu-
(cs.suff.) ‘machen’
(HIL. 703)
(Hitt. šaš·nu-, mar·nu-, etc.)
Gr. ·νυ-
(cs.suff.) ‘machen’
(GrGr. 1:695f.)
1. PIE *·nu-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ·νυ-
√nuo-


PIE √num- √enum- √onum- (sb.) ‘Beruhigung, Friede’
(IEW 321)
(Pyysalo: Hitt. + Gr.)
√enum-
(Pyysalo)
Hitt. enuma-
(vb.M.) ‘sich beruhigen ‹rather than ‘sich erholen’›’
(HHand. 31)
(Hitt. e-nu-ma-an-da-ri [3pl])
1. PIE *enumo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → Hitt. enuma-
Gr. ἐνυμα·κρατίδα-
(PNm.) ‘-(?)-’
(GEW 2:396)
(Lac. ἐνυμακρατίδας ‹not to Gr. ὄνομα›)
1. PIE *enumeɑh·Σ
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *enumaɑh·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. enumaɑh·Σ
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *enumah·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. enumah·Σ
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *enuma·Σ
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. enuma·Σ
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ἐνυμα·Σ
Gr. ἐνυμαντι·άδα-
(PNm.) ‘-(?)-’
(GEW 2:396)
(Lac. ἐνυμαντιάδας ‹not to Gr. ὄνομα›)
1. PIE *enumeɑhnti·Σ
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *enumaɑhnti·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. enumaɑhnti·Σ
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *enumahnti·Σ
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. enumahnti·Σ
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *enumanti·Σ
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. enumanti·Σ
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Gr. ἐνυμαντι·Σ


PIE √nun- (vb.) ‘können, vermögen’ (sb.) ‘Herrscher?’
(IEW –)
(Pyysalo)
√nun-
CLu. nun·zidi-
(mc.) ‘(officier du palais)’
(NOMS. 899)
(in Hitt. nu-un-zi-ti [Abs])
√nuno-
HLu. nuna-
(Ic.) ‹‘nobleman, commander?’›
(CHLu. 10.48.1)
(HLu. nu-na-sa [sgG], NOMS. 896)
1. PIE *nuno-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → HLu. nuna-
√nunɑh-
Dor. νύνα-
(vb.) ‘können, vermögen, gelten, bedeuten’
(GEW 1:423-4)
(Cret. νύναμαι [1sg] (Gortyn))
1. PIE *núneɑh-
PIE *eɑ → aɑ
De Saussure's rule for PIE *eɑ
Reɑ›aɑ → *núnaɑh-
(SPIE §2.2.7)
2. núnaɑh-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *núnah-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
3. núnah-
PIE *h → Ø
Loss of segmental *h
Rh›0 → *núna-
(SPIE §2.1.4)
4. núna-
Change from Latin to Greek alphabet
RLat›Gr → Dor. νύνα-
√nuni-
OGaul. silic·nuni·[...
(PN.) ‘(containing OGaul. silic- ‘(Feuer)stein’?)’
(ACSS 2:1547)
(OGaul. silicnuni[... [?] ‹uncertain whether this word belongs here›)


PIE √nudɑɦ- √noudɑɦ- √neudɑɦ- (sb.) ‘Verlangen, Begier’ (a.) ‘angenehm’ (vb.) ‘genießen’
(IEW 767)
(Pyysalo: CLu. + IE)
√neudɑɦ-
OSax. niud-
(m.) ‘Verlangen, Begier’
(ASächsWb. 56)
1. PIE *neudɑɦo
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *neudɦo
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. neudɦo
*dɦ → d
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *dɦ
Rdɦ›d → *neudo
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. neudo
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *neuda
4. neuda
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → *niuda
5. niuda
*-a → Ø
Loss of root-final -a
R=a›=0 → OSax. niud
OHG. niot-
(a.) ‘angenehm: pleasant, agreeable’
(WH. 1065)
1. PIE *neudɑɦo
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *neudɦo
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. neudɦo
*dɦ → d
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *dɦ
Rdɦ›d → *neudo
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. neudo
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *neuda
4. neuda
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → *niuda
5. niuda
*-a → Ø
Loss of root-final -a
R=a›=0 → *niud
6. niud
*d → t
OHG sound shift of *d
Rd›tHG → OHG. niut
OHG. niot-
(m.) ‘Verlangen, Begierde, Sehnsucht’
(N. + Gl.)
(Lat. amor N, aviditas N, cupiditas N, cupido N, desiderium Gl)
1. PIE *neudɑɦo
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *neudɦo
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. neudɦo
*dɦ → d
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *dɦ
Rdɦ›d → *neudo
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. neudo
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *neuda
4. neuda
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → *niuda
5. niuda
*-a → Ø
Loss of root-final -a
R=a›=0 → *niud
6. niud
*d → t
OHG sound shift of *d
Rd›tHG → OHG. niut
OSax. gi·niuda-
(vb.) ‘genießen, sich erfreuen’
(ASächsWb. 56)
1. PIE *Π·neudɑɦo-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *Π·neudɦo-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. Π·neudɦo-
*dɦ → d
Loss of *ɦ in media aspirata *dɦ
Rdɦ›d → *Π·neudo-
(SPIE §4.8.1.5)
3. Π·neudo-
PIE *o → a
Change of *o into a
Ro›a → *Π·neuda-
4. Π·neuda-
*e → i
Change of *e into i
Re›i → OSax. Π·niuda-
√nudɑɦu-
CLu. nudu-
(vb.) ‘desire’
(KUB xxxv 113 5-7)
(CLu. nu-u-tu-ši [2sg])
1. PIE *nudɑɦu-
PIE *ɑ → Ø
Loss of *ɑ
Rɑ›0 → *nudɦu-
(SPIE §2.2.4)
2. nudɦu-
PIE Dɦ → D
Absence of voiced aspirates
RDɦ›D → CLu. nudu-
(Pyysalo 2013:XX)

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